COGNATE STATES.

We always try to advance the study of a state which has hitherto been little known and examined, by comparing it with other states, with whose symptoms we are better acquainted. We will therefore try to find points of correspondence with hypnosis.

The cognate states might be considered later, after we had discussed hypnotism in general, and its theory in particular. But as I shall then have to return to certain points which must be discussed in speaking of the cognate states, I prefer to sketch these first. The name selected by Braid shows that there is a resemblance between sleep (hypnos) and hypnotism ; and the Nancy investigators, Liebeault, Bernheim,Brullard, as well as Forel, of Zurich, consider hypnosis an ordinary sleep ; they think that a person who falls asleep spontaneously is in rapport with himself, while a hypnotized subject is in rapport with the person who hypnotized him ; in their view this is the chief difference between sleep and hypnosis.

I believe, however, that we cannot so easily agree to an identification of the states. We must begin by distinguishing the light and deep hypnoses. We see that in the light hypnosis there is merely an inhibition of the will, which affects the movements ; the memory is not at all affected. Now we always presuppose a great decrease of self-consciousness in sleep. But it just this self-consciousness which remains intact in light hypnosis; and in this state the subject is pertly aware of all that goes on, and, as a rule, forgets nothing on waking. Consequently I do not think we can make a close comparison between sleep and hypnosis; nor do I think it possible to make a fruitful comparison between these light hypnoses and the states of drowsiness and fatigue which precede sleep. In any case we have seen that a feeling of fatigue is not uncommon in these hypnotic states. Besides which we have also seen that the loss of voluntary muscular movement is one of their chief phenomena. There is hardly a hint of this in the drowsy state ; there is only a general fatigue of the muscles and heaviness in the limbs. In spite of this the sleepy person can move as he pleases ; at the most he only feels dull, but the lessened power of the will shown in hypnosis is entirely wanting.

Further, these light hypnotic states arc distinguished from the early stages of sleep by the decreased activity of consciousness in these latter. The current of the ideas, of images of memory, &c., is less under the control of the will, while in the light hypnotic states only the voluntary movements suffer change. In the early stages of sleep sense impressions do not develop into conscious ideas in the usual way ; much that generally excites our interest and attention is overlooked, while there is often reverie independent of thewill. But almost all this is entirely absent in the light hypnotic states.

On this account I here protest against a terminology, which has been to a great extent adopted, and which many doctors have helped to propagate, butwhich is none the less erroneous. For example, it is often said that hypnotized persons are " asleep," and the two states have been partly identified. I think this a misuse of words, since, as has been explained, there are a whole series of hypnotic states in which not one symptom of sleep appears, and mistaken conclusions are often drawn from the mistaken terminology, with resulting confusion.

The case in deep hypnosis is essentially different. It is characterized by numerous sense delusions, which, however, are just the same thing as our nightly dreams. In order to carry out the comparison, it will perhaps be well to consider the mode of origin of dreams in ordinary sleep. Dreams are divided into two classes, according to the manner of their origin (Spitta) : (1) dreams induced by nerve stimulation, and (2) dreams induced by association of ideas. The first—by far the most numerous—are induced by a peripheral stimulus of the nerves, affecting the brain. Here the nerve stimulus is certainly felt; a memory picture arises, and a perception results. This picture does not, however, correspond to the actual stimulus, which could only be accurately estimated by full waking attention.

It is difficult to say what memory picture will be aroused and what dream will result, as it depends upon several factors which as yet escape our observation. Schemer's numerous attempts to explain this are not very convincing. The memory picture aroused by a stimulus in the manner sketched above attaches itself in a number of cases to a previously existing dream. " When an orator dreams he is making a speech, he takes every noise for the applause of his imaginary hearers " (Walter Scott).

Dreams can be artificially called up by nerve stimulation. If a sleeping man is sprinkled with water he will dream of a shower of rain (Leixner). Maury has made a number of experiments on himself during sleep. When Eau de Cologne was held to his nose he dreamed that he was in Farina's shop at Cairo. Preyer, Prevost, Hervey, and many others have published such experiments.

The second kind of dreams are dreams from association of ideas ; they are supposed to follow on a primary central act. The memory picture is supposed to be caused by some primary central activity, and not by a peripheral stimulus. Between these two classes of dreams there is another which I may call suggested dreams. In these no stimulus is applied to the nerves of the subject which he may work out according to his fancy; but a dream is suggested to him verbally (Red, Maury, Max Simon). An acquaintance of mine told his daughter that she saw rooks, upon which she dreamed of them and related her dream on waking. On other occasions the attempt failed.

It would seem that certain stages of sleep are fitter for this than others. Delboeuf believes that the transitional stage between sleeping and waking is the best. He even supposes that many nervous and mental disorders originate from natural suggestion made at this time, and that they develop themselves like post-hypnotic suggestions. As regards the mode of origin, these suggested dreams are identical with the suggested sense delusions of hypnosis.

But the mode of origin of other dreams in sleep does not differ essentially from their mode of origin in hypnosis. This is particularly clear when we compare the hallucinations induced by nerve stimulation mentioned on p. ,178 with them; these hallucinations are identical with dreams induced by nerve stimulation. Here is an example. I hypnotize a person, and blow with the bellows close to him, without speaking. The blowing causes a central excitation, and the subject believes he hears a steam engine. He dreams he sees a train ; he believes he is at the railway station at Schoneberg, &c. This is exactly the same thing as a dream produced by nerve stimulation, in which the falling of a chair makes the dreamer think he hears a gun fired, and is in a battle. Besides, in hypnosis as well as in sleep such stimuli are enormously over-estimated by the consciousness ; a slight noise is taken for the sound of a gun, and a touch on the hand for the bite of a dog. I have made many such suggestions in hypnosis. I drum upon the table, without speaking ; the subject hears, and dreams of military music, and that he is in the street, and sees soldiers, &c. What dream will be induced by the peripheral stimulus, and what memory picture will be aroused, either in sleep or in hypnosis, depends upon the character of the subject. One thing is clear from the comparisons I have made : it is a mistake to think, as many do, that no intercourse with the outside world takes place in sleep. The opinion that by far the greater number of dreams are induced by sense stimuli gains more and more adherents (Wundt). This receptivity to stimuli which reach the brain, unregulated by the consciousness, and mistakenly interpreted, is a phenomenon of both sleep and hypnosis.

It is evident from what has been said that the method employed to make external suggestion in hypnosis often suffices to induce dreams in sleep. At the most there is only a quantitative difference, since most sense delusions are directly suggested in hypnosis, while in sleep dreams are caused by some peripheral stimulus, which undergoes a special elaboration in the brain of the sleeper.

The purport of dreams, as well as the way they originate, is alike in sleep and hypnosis. It is naturally impossible to go into details. But as in sleep we believe ourselves in another situation, and encounter all sorts of sense delusions, so also in hypnosis. And as a subject in hypnosis can be replaced in earlier periods of his life, so in dreams also. Many habitually dream that they are again undergoing the final examination at college many years after. Complete changes of personality also take place in dreams. An officer who greatly admired Hannibal, told me that he had dreamed he was Hannibal, and had fought an imaginary battle in that character. Another man was even less modest; he dreamed that he was God, and was governing the world.

We cannot decide whether there is more dreaming in hypnosis than in sleep, because we can never know how many dreams happen in sleep. While some say that dreams only occur during a short period of sleep, others, like Kant, Forel, Exner, and Simonin go so far as to deny that there is any sleep without dreaming; they say that dreaming is continuous, but that most dreams are forgotten.

As we find that the origin and purport of dreams arethe same in sleep and hypnosis, it follows that in allprobability the dreams of hypnosis are no more injurious to health than the dreams of sleep.

In spite of all this, we can find a difference between the phenomena of deep hypnosis and of sleep in several points—(1) in the apparently logical connection between the suggested idea and the hypnotic subject's own thoughts ; (2) in the movements of the subject, and particularly in his speech, since there may be a conversation between experimenter and subject (Wernich).

With regard to the first point, we have seen (p. 161) that a series of ideas sometimes link themselves logically to another particular idea. Consequently the difference from sleep is only apparent. As long as the suggested idea prevails in hypnosis, other ideas will often link themselves logically to it. This linking is, however, on the whole, merely mechanical, the result of habitual association of ideas. This logical connection can be broken at any moment with the greatest ease by suggestion, as I have shown ; in the same way the whole current of ideas may change at any moment. It at once appears from this that the consciousness is unable to unite the ideas actively, as the smallest external influence suffices to tear them asunder at once. The logical connection mentioned above lasts only as long as the experimenter permits. Those cases in which the dream-consciousness carries on some planned mental work show that there may be a logical connection with the dominant idea even in dreams.

I will not go into details of examples. It is known that Voltaire wrote poetry in sleep,that mathematicians sometimes solve problems when asleep, and that the well-known physiologist, Burdach, worked out many scientific ideas in sleep. Maury has also pointed out that apparently disconnected dream-ideas are yet related to each other by certain associations.

I mentioned the movements in hypnosis as a further apparent contrast between this state and sleep. But this assuredly forms no qualitative distinction, since it is known that people move in sleep (Hans Virchow). The activity of the muscles in sleep is often an automatic continuation of movements begun awake. This happens with people who fall asleep in making one particular movement ; they continue the movement in sleep. Coachmen will go on driving, and riders will hold the bridle without falling off: here the movement begun has made an unconscious impression strong enough to make the muscular movement go on. Birds also go to sleep standing.

In all these cases the muscular action is very like the contractures and automatic movements described on p. 69. Besides this, certain external stimuli may cause movements during sleep. It seems probable to me that they do not happen without consciousness. If part of a sleeper's body is uncovered, he will draw the cover over it ; if he is tickled, he will rub the place. Even if these are regarded as physical reflexes without any accompanying mental action, which is not proved, the case is essentially different with the movements which children make in sleep, at command. If a child is told to turn over, he will do it without waking (Ewald). This is an act which, as Ewald remarks, may fairly be compared with the phenomena of hypnosis, in which movements the same in kind, if greater in extent, are made at command. It shows how movements may be caused in sleep by external mental stimuli. These movements become plainer when they are not called up directly, but are purely the consequence of a dream. Dreams often cause movements. Many persons, particularly children, laugh in pleasant dreams. The same sort of thing has often been observed. A lady I know dreamed that she was blowing out a lamp; she made the corresponding movements with her mouth. She was awakened, and related the dream which had no doubt caused the movements of the mouth. Every one knows that children in especial often scream when they are dreaming.

The persons we call somnambulists (sleep-walkers, night-walkers) show these movements, which are characteristic. The resemblance between hypnotism and somnambulism is so great that the name somnambulism is used for both (Richet). Hypnotism is called artificial somnambulism, and the other natural somnambulism, or, better, spontaneous somnambulism, since artificial somnambulism is really as natural as the other, as Poincelot insists. All sorts of movements are made in spontaneous somnambulism. Three stages are generally distinguished—(1) that in which the sleeper speaks ; (2) that in which he makes all sorts of movements but does not leave his bed ; (3) that in which he gets up, walks about, and performs the most complicated actions. In my experience the first two stages are found in persons of sanguine temperament who are decidedly not in a pathological condition. It is not yet finally decided whether the third state appears under pathological conditions only. From my own experience I am inclined to think that it is occasionally observed when there is no constitutional weakness, especially in children. If we want to show these states, we can do it with the healthiest subjects. As regards these movements in sleep, my own experience is that the persons who are most restless in natural sleep, who talk, or throw themselves about, are the most inclined to lively movement in hypnosis. In any case the movements are also displayed in sleep. I think we ought to call the last states sleep, especially the two first stages of somnambulism.

Consequently the movements of subjects in hypnosis do not offer a fundamental contrast to sleep, especially when they are caused by suggested delusions of sense.

The fact that a subject in hypnosis can carry on a conversation is not enough to mark off hypnosis from sleep, as Werner erroneously supposes ; for many persons answer questions and obey commands in sleep (Lotze). According to my experience, and that of others, certain persons easily answer in sleep when some one they know well speaks to them. A child will speak to its mother, and bedfellows to one another. A conversation is easily carried on when the waking person follows the sleeper's chain of thought and insinuates himself, so to speak, into his consciousness (Brandis). A lady I know dreamed aloud of a person (X.), and when her husband talked to her as if he were X. he was answered, hut when he spoke in his own person he was ignored.

Finally, there are many persons who can hardly be induced to move in hypnosis, though they can be made to dream anything.

I hope that what has been said makes it clear that hypnosis by no means needs to be sharply distinguished from sleep, in spite of its apparent differences. To my mind the dividing line between sleep and hypnosis is merely a quantitative difference in the movements. Movements in hypnosis are easily induced ; in sleep they arc duller, slower, and rarer. The resemblance of the two states goes still further.

Even post-hypnotic suggestion finds an analogy in sleep (Liebeault). Of course the effect of dreams upon the organism is not so easy to observe as the effect of suggestion, as most dreams arc forgotten. However, I will mention some of these analogous cases. People who dream of a shot, and wake in consequence, continue to hear the reverberation clearly after they wake (Max Simon). Others after waking feel a pain of which they have been dreaming (Charpignon). I will merely mention certain phenomena which resemble these—the dreams which are continued into waking life, which may be compared to continuative post-hypnotic suggestions. There are well-known vivid dream-pictures which are not recognized as dreams, and which are taken for reality even after waking (Brierre de Boismont). It is certain that even the most enlightened persons are influenced by dreams. Many are out of humour the whole day after having been annoyed by unpleasant dreams. The experiments lately made by Friedrich Heerwagen, of Dorpat, have proved that persons who have dreamt much are in an unpleasant frame of mind the next day. I know patients who are much worse after dreaming of their complaints ; a stammerer will stammer more after dreaming about it. We find analogies with post-hypnotic suggestion everywhere. There are well-known cases in which persons have dreamed of taking an aperient, with effect.

Perhaps a case mentioned by Fere' may be referred to here. A girl dreamed for several nights that men were running after her. She grew daily more exhausted, and the weakness in her legs increased till a hysterical paraplegia of both legs declared itself. In mental diseases doctors have often mentioned an analogous phenomenon ; they say that the earliest signs of mental disorder show themselves first in dream. Griesinger says that delirium often begins in dream. Esquirol says that in acute mania it has been observed that the patient thinks he is ordered in a dream to do something. This is certainly analogous to post-hypnotic suggestion. Tonnini mentions a rather inconclusive case of a woman who was induced by a dream to do something. Of course such cases are difficult to observe ; but it is very probable that dreams have an after-effect on even thoroughly healthy people. Aristotle maintained long ago that many of our actions had their origin in dreams.

The similarity of the means used to induce sleep and hypnosis is often insisted upon as a proof of their identity. But a distinction must be made. It is said that monotonous stimuli induce both sleep and hypnosis. Purkinje, therefore, thought that Braid's methods would also produce sleep. But we should never conclude an identity of states from the identity of their causes. We should observe whether the symptoms are identical. To decide the question, we should ask, Is the subject who is sent to sleep by monotonous sense stimulation without a primary mental act susceptible to suggestion or not ? I have seen cases in which the subjects fixed their gaze but did not concentrate their attention. The subsequent state was an ordinary sleep, out of which the subjects awoke when I made verbal suggestions to them, however softly I spoke. It is the same thing when we wish to decide whether a tedious speaker hypnotizes his audience. Many people grow sleepy, or even fall asleep, in such a case. Unluckily it would be hardly practicable to make a suggestion to a man who had fallen asleep under such conditions, and yet this would be the only way to decide whether he was hypnotized or not. But sleep comes on without concentration of the subject's thoughts. If he concentrates his thoughts on the orator, he will not go to sleep ; in this case his state of partially strained attention much resembles hypnosis. If the state is strongly marked, negative hallucinations may arise (for instance, with regard to noises), as in hypnosis. I know several cases of this kind. I am also in doubt whether those states of loss or disturbance of consciousness, induced by vertigo, e.g., by spinning round quickly, should be reckoned as hypnoses. Erdmann has identified the states induced by vertigo and by tedium in his well-known ingenious manner. But I must repeat that it does not matter how the states are produced ; the point is whether their symptoms are alike. This must always be considered, and I direct attention to it again, although in discussing the symptoms I mentioned excitation of the muscular sense such as takes place in spinning round and round as a hypnogenetic method. So much for the resemblance between sleep and hypnosis.

Hypnosis has been often compared to mental disorder as well as to sleep. Rieger and Semal, as well as Hack Tuke (so far back as 1865), called hypnosis an artificially induced mental disorder. In the first place I would remark that it is of no consequence what hypnosis is called. Even in therapeutics this is a matter of no moment. Suppose the use of morphia were denounced because morphia is a poison, and because the sleep induced by morphia is an effect of poisoning. As Rieger justly says, we need not trouble ourselves about names. We might call hypnosis a mental disorder if we also regarded sleep and dreams as such. And we find that when doctors in psychological practice wish to discover analogies to mental disorder, they always have recourse to dreams. This resemblance has struck many observers, but no author has maintained that in order to lose one's sanity it is only necessary to go to sleep.

The most different mental disorders have been compared to hypnosis, which shows what confusion there is about it. For example, Rieger and Konrad say that hypnosis is nothing but an artificial madness. Meynert maintains that it is an experimentally-produced imbecility. Luys compares it to general paralysis of the insane, and others to melancholia attonita. These different comparisons show the want of unanimity among authors, for the forms of mental disorder we call imbecility and mania are as unlike as a pea and a rose, which are both plants, but of utterly different kinds. No two states of mental disorder could be more unlike than imbecility and mania.

When hypnosis is thus compared to mental disorder it is generally forgotten that susceptibility to suggestion is the chief phenomenon of hypnosis. But it is a mistake to think that susceptibility to suggestion is an essential phenomenon of mental disorder ; if it were, mental disorders could be cured by suggestion, which is hardly ever possible. Suggestibility is a symptom of sleep, and we have seen that the dreams which follow on stimulation of the nerves may be induced by suggestion. By means of suggestion in hypnosis forms of hypnosis may be induced which resemble mental derangement, i.e., spontaneous mania, or melancholia attonita, besides forms of imbecility, &c. But we can also induce paralysis and stammer-by suggestion, and yet hypnosis is not a state of paralysis or of stammering. We can suggest pain in hypnosis, yet hypnosis is not a state of pain. And how the light stages of hypnosis, in which only certain motor effects are caused by suggestion, can be called states of mental disorder is not clear to me, unless a person is to be called mentally unsound simply because he cannot open his eyes. But even the susceptibility to suggestion which exists in such mental disorders as delirium tremens (Moli, Pierre Janet), or the Katatonie of Kahlbaum (Jensen), must not be without further ceremony identified with the susceptibility we find in hypnosis. I need only say " Wake!" to the hypnotized subject, and the state ends; but there is no disease which can be guided and ended at a moment's notice like hypnosis.

Of course no author would call hypnosis a mental disorder merely because it may be occasionally a delusion in insanity. Freud is right when he says that meat does not lose its flavour when an enthusiastic vegetarian calls it carrion ; why should a mental influence, such as we have found hypnosis to be, lose its value or interest because it is sometimes called mental disease ?

A remark of Griesinger shows how capriciously all such terms are used; he thinks a somnambulism of short duration is a sleep, and a longer one a mental disorder.

It is no new thing to see hypnosis brought into connection with hysteria and regarded as an artificial hysteria or neurosis. Demarquay and Giraud-Teulon have pointed out analogies, and Charcot has lately called his three stages a "grande nevrose hypnotique" Dumontpallier also thinks that hypnosis is an experimental neurosis. I would make the same remark upon this as upon the mental disorders. Charcot has called up the complete type of a neurosis, and specially of hysteria, by suggestion. This was comparatively easy in his cases of "grande hysterie," because phenomena which are common in the subject in waking life are more easily induced in hypnosis than others (Grasset). I repeat, it would be easy to suggest stammering in hypnosis, and then draw the conclusion that hypnosis is a state of stammering. Besides, Charcot has never maintained that the states, as they exist apart from his three stages, and as they have been observed by the school of Nancy, are neuroses; on the contrary, he expressly excludes them from neuroses.

Other states have also been occasionally compared to hypnosis. I may mention catalepsy, a disease, or symptom of disease, in which the limbs keep any given position ; and lethargy, a strange state of sleep, in which artificial awakening is difficult or impossible, and to which a disease called hypnosia or sleeping sickness, observed in the negroes of West Africa, appears to be related. Thomsen's disease, in which a contracture follows voluntary movement, is also compared to hypnosis, and so are epileptic disturbances of consciousness. I pass over the phenomena of intoxication by alcohol, chloroform, ether, opium, and particularly haschisch, which are often compared to hypnosis on account of the delusions of sense which occur in them. Narcolepsy must also be mentioned. In this disease there are periodical attacks of sleepiness. It has been described by Gelineau, Rousseau, Ballet, and others. Certain cases of what Drosdow calls Morbus Hypnoticus, whose resemblance to hypnosis is unmistakable, may be included in this tolerably undefined narcolepsy. These states might be regarded as auto-hypnoses. Vizioli has published an account of an auto-hypnosis, in which he succeeded in making even post-hypnotic suggestions to the subject. Naturally, the terminology is very arbitrary in these cases; these states might be ascribed to spontaneous somnambulism arising directly out of waking life, and not in sleep, as usual. The famous case of Motet, which was so important from the legal point of view, would then belong to this class. A man committed a criminal act in a state of self-induced hypnosis, to which he was subject. On Motet's recommendation he was acquitted. A case of Dufay's is nearly identical. It would be extremely illogical, besides, to call hypnosis a morbid state merely because a morbid imitation of it is to be found in many forms of Morbus Hypnoticus. It would be as great a mistake as if we were to take yawning for a disease because there are people who suffer from attacks of yawning, and who yawn to an abnormal degree (Ochorowicz). Lata often resembles hypnosis (Bastian, O'Brien, Forbes). The word Lata properly means the sufferers from this complaint, not the disease. The disease is found among the Malays ; the patient imitates every movement made in his presence, as in " fascination." The same thing has been seen in Maine among the " Jumpers " (Beard), and in Siberia, where the sufferers are called " Miryachit" (Hammond).

Once more, the chief feature of hypnosis is increased susceptibility to suggestion. By means of this we can induce counterfeits of all sorts of diseases, which appear identical with the real thing. But none the less, hypnosis should not be identified with these diseases. The two characteristics of hypnosis are suggestibility and the power of ending the state at pleasure. We do not find them united in mental disorders, nor in neuroses ; but we find them in sleep, in which suggestion induces dreams by means of stimulation of the senses, and from which the subject can be aroused at any moment by an external stimulus. Although no identification of hypnosis and sleep would be justifiable on the above grounds, I must again point out that, in spite of their apparent differences, they are closely related, at least so far as hypnoses of the second group are concerned.

The different phenomena of hypnosis have been also observed in normal waking life, and this makes a comparison of the hypnotic states with other abnormal states considerably more difficult. For example, a symptom which A. shows in hypnosis he does not show in his normal state ; but it may be observed in B.'s normal waking life. This may be referred to the phenomena of suggestion, which exist normally, as I showed on p. 57, but which are increased in certain cases during hypnosis. People differ greatly in their susceptibility to suggestion in waking life ; I have spoken (p. 57) of suggestions in ordinary life, from which hypnosis cannot be concluded. Besides which a number of phenomena of suggestion, which are generally regarded as a peculiarity of hypnosis, have been found in waking life. Braid, the American electrobiologists, Heidenhain, Berger, Richet, Levy, Bernheim, Beaunis, Liegeois, and Forel, may be mentioned among those who have made observations in this field.

These phenomena are shown by subjects who have been hypnotized as well as by those who have not. Contractures, paralyses, dumbness, and all kinds of motor disturbances can be induced by suggestion in the waking state. According to some authors it is even possible to induce hallucinations without hypnosis. However, many of the experiments, and particularly the conclusions drawn from them, seem to meto have two defects. Those who talk of suggestions in the waking state (suggestions a veille) forget, first, that sleep is by no means always indispensable for many hypnotic suggestions. Authors often confuse hypnosis with sleep in speaking of suggestions in the waking state. We have seen that the light hypnotic stages do not much resemble sleep ; consequently we must not conclude that a state of contracture, &c, is, or is not, a hypnosis because it resembles sleep or not. The second point which these authors generally overlook is this : they think that hypnosis is excluded in these cases of waking suggestion, because none of the usual methods of inducing hypnosis have been used. But the methods are not absolutely necessary for the induction of hypnosis. We cannot make the question, whether hypnosis is present or not, depend on the means employed. If we refused to believe in any particular state unless the usual means had been used to induce it, we should revolutionize science. In my opinion we ought to consider the state and its symptoms separately. For if we take a certain degree of suggestibility, loss of memory, &c, for a symptom of hypnosis, nothing remains but to regard as hypnoses many—I will not say all—of these states which are generally described as suggestions without hypnosis. The chief phenomenon of hypnosis is that a certain accepted idea leads to a movement or a delusion of the senses, &c. We have further seen that the experimenter can change the subject's dominant idea very quickly, i.e., he can suggest one thing quickly after another. If, then, we can do the same thing without any previous appearance of hypnosis, we must call the state a hypnosis all the same, particularly if there is subsequent loss of memory, which is generally the case in delusions of the senses. There has been a kind of hypnosis in both cases.

Thoroughly concentrated attention is not absolutely necessary to induce hypnosis ; a partial concentration is enough. In these experiments there is generally partial concentration. For example, to produce a catalepsy of the arm in the waking state the experimenter often makes mesmeric passes down it. This leads, as I have shown (p. 68), to a concentration of the subject's attention on the desired result. At least it appears from many experiments on this point that the attention of the subject is so concentrated ; and this concentration leads to hypnosis.

Besides, in such suggestions the subject generally remembers an earlier hypnosis ; and the idea of hypnosis is enough to induce it. Therefore we often need only to repeat a suggestion made in an earlier hypnosis to cause a new one (Marin). The fact that paralyses, contractures, &c., can be produced by suggestion in this new hypnosis, shows that it is as real as the first. In the deeper states, when delusions of sense can be induced, loss of memory usually follows. The changed expression of the subject's face also shows there is hypnosis. Finally, the presence of a real hypnosis is proved by the rapport between subject and experimenter.

For the reasons above mentioned I think we should call many of these states true hypnoses, not suggestions without hypnosis. The school of Nancy, and particularly Liegeois and Beaunis, have to a certain extent acknowledged this. But they certainly have not given to the point all the importance it deserves.

They thought many of these states were intermediate forms; between sleeping and waking, which they identified with the veille somnambulique described above (p. 146).

I know that from what I have said it might be concluded that all these suggestions were made in hypnosis. It is, in truth, very difficult to find clear diagnostic symptoms in certain cases. My explanation aims only at pointing out that there may really be hypnosis, though none of the usual methods have been employed to bring it on. I have, besides, tried to prevent suggestion in waking life, and especially to make delusions of the senses impossible.

It is often very difficult to decide whether there is hypnosis or not, because isolated hypnotic symptoms are often seen in certain people who are not in hypnosis. There are even delusions of the senses without hypnosis, sleep, or mental disorder, when circumstances influence the mind in a particular way. The common hallucination of smell is an example. People often imagine that they still smell things which have been removed. Delusions of sight are just as common. Many people have taken trees for men when walking in the twilight. Goethe's self-induced hallucinations of sight are well known. Delboeuf also describes a waking hallucination of sight; he thought he saw his dead mother, but corrected his impression by reason. If there are even delusions of the senses without hypnosis, it is evidently difficult to argue the presence of hypnosis from a single symptom.

I should call the following the chief points in settling the question whether a suggestion is made in hypnosis or not: I. Of what kind are the suggestions ? Are they of such a kind that they rarely occur normally ? 2. After one suggestion has succeeded, can other suggestions be made as quickly as in hypnosis, or is a long preparation necessary for each suggestion ? The quick success of the following suggestion would be in favour of hypnosis. 3. After the suggestion has succeeded, can the subject prevent further suggestion by an act of will, or not? If he cannot, it favours the supposition of a hypnotic state. 4. Is there rapport ? That is, can the subject be influenced by anybody or by only one? Rapport favours hypnosis. 5. Are there bodily symptoms of hypnosis ? 6. Are the events subsequently forgotten? Loss of memory also favours the supposition of hypnosis.

The many transitional states between waking life and hypnosis will often make the question difficult to decide ; none of the points above mentioned will alone suffice to settle it.

It sometimes happens that we try to induce a person to do something by looking at him fixedly ; we then see how slight is the division between the hypnotic states and waking life. A teacher who thinks his pupil is lying, looks at him fixedly to ascertain the truth, just as is done in fascination. This fixed gaze affects the will of the person looked at, as we have seen in hypnosis. We recognize an analogy on one hand, on the other we see how difficult it must always be to decide where hypnosis begins and waking life ends.

States resembling, or perhaps identical with, hypnosis, are also found in animals, and can easily be experimentally induced. The first experiments of thiskind are referred to by the Jesuit Kircher ;—the so-called experimentum mirabile Kircheri. Kircher described these experiments in 1646. But accordingto Preyer the experiment had been made by Schwenter several years earlier. The most striking of these experiments, which are being continued in the present day, is as follows: A hen is held down on the ground; the head in particular is pressed down.

A chalk line is then drawn on the ground, starting from the bird's beak. The hen will remain motionless. Kircher ascribes this to the animal's imagination ; he said that it imagined it was fastened, and consequently did not try to move. Czermak repeated the experiment on different animals, and announced in 1872 that a hypnotic state could be induced in other animals besides the hen. Preyer shortly after began to interest himself in the question, and made a series of experiments like Czermak's. Preyer, however, distinguishes two states in animals— catalepsy, which is the effect of fear, and the hypnotic state. Heubel, Richet, Danilewsky, and Rieger, besides the authors mentioned above, have occupied themselves with the question.

Most of the experiments have been made with frogs, crayfish, guinea-pigs, and birds. I myself have made many with frogs. This much is certain : many animals will remain motionless in any position in which they have been held by force for a time. There are various opinions as to the meaning of this. Preyer thinks many of these states arc paralyses from fright, or catalepsy, produced by a sudden peripheral stimulus. In any case they vividly recall the catalepsy of the Salpetriere, also caused by a strong external stimulus. It is said a sudden Drummond lime-light produces the same effect on a cock as it does on hysterical patients (Richer). But in general the external stimulus used with animals is tactile, as in seizing them. Heubel thinks that these states in animals are a true sleep following on the cessation of the external stimuli, and Wundt seems to agree with him.

Preyer has especially shown that the frog will remain rigid when upright, if it is kept from falling, as well as when lying on its back. The hind leg of a frog lying on its back may be pulled out, and the animal will not draw it in again as it usually does. Richet, however, says that it is drawn in again at once, if the spinal cord is divided below the medulla oblongata. It is interesting that when a "hypnotic" frog is placed in a certain position it will at first move after a short time, but the more often the experiment is repeated the longer the frog lies without moving. I have seen frogs lie on their backs in this way for hours, and have even often seen them die without turning over. The deeper the state is, the less the animal responds to external stimuli; it ends by not moving at tolerably loud noises or even stimulation of the skin. Danilewsky made a series of experiments, from which he concluded that there were regular changes of reflex excitability ; but Rieger was unable to confirm this. Danilewsky has lately made some more deeply interesting experiments, which it is to be hoped he will carry on. He says that when the brain hemispheres are taken away the frog assumes cataleptoid postures, and further that these turn into hypnoses in animals who have rotatory movements after injury of the semi-circular canals of the ear.

Harting's experiments also deserve mention ; after repeated hypnotic experiments with fowls he observed hemiplegic phenomena in them, according to a communication by Milne-Edwards to the Paris Academy of Sciences.

I will not try to decide the question why these experiments with animals are undertaken. I do not think that they will help to elucidate hypnotic phenomena in human beings.

Another series of observations, which were chiefly made for practical purposes, may be mentioned here. They also may be regarded as hypnotic phenomena. I speak of the so-called " Balassiren " of horses, introduced by the cavalry officer Balassa. This process has been introduced by law into Austria for the shoeing of horses (Obersteiner). It consists chiefly in looking fixedly at the horse, just as in "fascination." The numerous experiments of Wilson should also be mentioned ; he is said to have hypnotized elephants, wolves, horses, &c, in London, in 1839. Fascination is used by beast tamers, who stare fixedly into the eyes of the animal they wish to tame. Many think that the charming of birds by snakes is fascination. Liebeault and Forel think that the winter sleep (hibernation) of animals is an auto-hypnosis ; and so, perhaps, is the strange sleep of the Indian fakirs, which sometimes lasts for weeks and months (Fischer). A number of trustworthy witnesses and authors (Jacolliot, Hildebrandt, Hellwald) tell us even stranger things about these fakirs, which set any attempt at explanation on the basis of our present scientific knowledge at defiance ; that is, if we decline to regard them as mere juggler's tricks. Hildebrandt among other things relates that he saw a fakir sitting in a Hindoo temple ; he was crouching down with his left arm stretched upwards ; the arm was dead and so perfectly dry that the skin might easily have been torn from it. Another fakir had held his thumb pressed against the palm of his hand till the nail had grown deep into the flesh. It is said, besides, that some of these people can make plants grow very quickly. Gorres mentioned this. These fakirs are also said to have been apparently buried for weeks and months, and yet have returned to normal life (?) Of course these things must be listened to with sceptical reserve. Yet even a scientific investigator like Hellwald thinks that though no doubt there is a great deal of jugglery, yet some of the phenomena remain at present inexplicable.

I have made but brief mention of these matters and of the experiments with animals ; details would take me too far. Any one who is interested will find material enough in Preyer's book, " Die Cataplexie und der thierische Hypnotismus." We can only mention these states as being analogous to hypnotic phenomena in human beings ; they have no further value for our subject.