THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS.

I COME now to the point which is most important and which requires the fullest consideration. In order to present as complete a survey as possible, I must make an arrangement under headings of Physiology and Psychology. It must not be thought, however, that we have to do with a real division ; of that there can be no question. For the bodily functions, of which I shall speak under the head of Physiology, show a deviation from the normal purely as a consequence of psychical states. Just as a man paralyzed by fright cannot move in consequence of a mental shock, and not in consequence of an injury to the muscles, so people in a state of religious excitement have visions, not because their eyes are abnormal in visual function, but because they are in an abnormal mental state; thus in hypnosis the muscles, the organs of sense, &c, are abnormal in function only because the mental state is altered. Only from this point of view is the division made in what follows. It is doubtful whether there exist generally in hypnosis, besides the primary mental and secondary physical alterations, any primary bodily abnormalities. Descriptions have often been given of them, of which I shall speak later; many such investigation, however, suffer from the fact that it is not clear whether we are dealing with an effect of the methods employed to induce hypnosis or with one of its essential phenomena. In order to explain what is meant by this I will suppose that a person looks for a long time fixedly at a button. This will produce watering of the eyes ; but this comes on in any case, whether hypnosis is produced or not. Consequently the watering of the eyes is not an essential phenomenon of hypnosis, but purely a consequence of the means employed to engender it. In consequence of the close tie which everywhere exists between the mental and bodily phenomena it will not be surprising if in discussing the latter I am often obliged to refer to the former, and vice versa; a thorough separation is not possible. In order not to destroy the inner unity for merely external considerations, I shall occasionally deviate from the purely tabular arrangement.

One peculiar quality of consciousness we shall very often find in hypnosis : what is called suggestibility, or, better, increased suggestibility. I shall so often use this word, and words connected with it, that it will be well to define exactly what is meant by it. For this purpose I must make a little digression.

Every concept in human beings has a particular action, which is to be recognized by an external or internal effect. For example, by the laws of association one concept calls up another. The idea of St. Helena awakes that of Napoleon I. This peculiar arousing of ideas by other ideas was called the law of suggestion by a great school of Scotch psychologists (Thomas Brown and others), and Paul Janet thinks that this expression induced Braid to introduce the term "to suggest" for an analogous phenomenon—the suggestion d'attitude—which will be discussed further on, A concept can, however, produce an effect by arousing feeling ; if any one thinks of a dead relative, he feels grief, and the thought of a joyful event awakens a feeling of happiness. Inclinations are called up in the same way ; the thought of an object for which one has a great longing awakens the desire to possess it. Sensations can be also produced in the same manner. We have an example in the itching which many persons feel directly fleas are talked of. These ideas, feelings, sensations, and desires, aroused by another idea, form internal processes, which we recognize by internal experience. But an idea can have an effect which displays itself externally—for example, thoughts call up certain movements.

Let us here consider a proceeding which is called thought-reading, which, as the "willing game," was for a long time a favourite society game in England in a somewhat modified form, and which became popular in Germany through the exhibitions of Cumberland. Most people have certainly seen it; however, I will again describe the process. A person A. is made to leave the room ; among those who remain, B. is chosen to think of some object present, which A. is to find. A. comes back, takes B.'s hand and demands that he shall think steadfastly of the place of the chosen object ; let us say it is the lamp. B. thinks steadfastly of it, and it is seen that A. and B. go together towards the lamp, till A., pointing to it, says," That was the object thought of." Simple as this process—explained lately by Beard, Gley, Richet, Obersteiner, Preyer, and known fifty years ago to Chevreul—maybe, it appeared enigmatical to many at first. This is the explanation : B. thinks steadily ofthe place of the lamp, and has at the same time slightmovements of the body, and particularly of the muscles of the arm, in the direction of the lamp. A. feels these muscular movements and follows them, he permits himself to be directed by them, and finds in this way the object thought of. B. naturally did not make the movements intentionally, consequently they were involuntary and unconscious. All the same, the movements were strong enough to show

A. the way. This example shows us the following;

B. had a certain idea (namely, that of the place of the lamp) in his head, and this concept called up movements. The movement of the lips which occurs when one thinks intensely of a word, is of analogous character (Strieker).

We see, then, from the foregoing that ideas aroused in us have an effect which sometimes shows itself internally as other concepts, sensations, &c, and sometimes externally as movement; in many cases, perhaps in all, there is both an internal and an external effect. What effect appears, what idea, what feeling, what movement will be induced by the first concept, depends upon the individuality of the person, upon his mental imagery, upon his character, his habits, and upon the species of concept; but a certain effect always follows.

In many cases a person (A.) is able to attain some particular effect, which he intentionally aimed at, by rousing in B. a definite concept; and this effect is often attained independently of B.'s will, or even against it. We see an example of this in a juggler. He wants to take some object or other without being seen by the public: to attain this he looks at another point—for example, at his left hand. The eyes of the spectators involuntarily follow his. By glancing at his left hand the juggler has caused the spectators to look in the same direction. He has aroused, as quick as lightning, in the spectators the idea that something is going on at his left hand ; and this idea has had the effect of making the spectators look at the left hand. A juggler is very often able to influence the spectators by some such proceeding. They are often thus induced to look in the direction desired by the juggler, in order that he may be able to change or hide some object unobserved. We see here, then, that he produces the effect he desires—namely, to make people look in another direction. But he takes great care not to tell the spectator to look in this direction. If he were to say this the spectator would discover his object, and certainly would not look at the spot which the juggler wishes, and he would not attain his end. On the other side there are also certain cases in which a desired effect is attained simply by directly assuring the person concerned that the effect will appear. He is certainly able in most cases to prevent arbitrarily the appearance of such an effect; but not always, however. An example which is brought forward by Bonniot should make this clear. One says to a person who is embarrassed, " You are getting red in the face now ! " It is well known that many people really blush when the conviction that they are blushing is aroused in their minds. Now a proceeding of this nature, in which an effect is obtained simply by arousing in the person concerned a conviction of its appearance, is called a suggestion. We shall find it extremely often in hypnosis, and I have already given above a number of examples of such suggestions. The method of inducing hypnosis in use at Nancy is to be referred to this kind of process. By it an endeavour is made to create in the subject a conviction of the appearance of hypnosis, and through this to induce the hypnosis itself.

But there are also cases in which the idea of the appearance of an effect is not aroused by a second person, but generated by the subject himself. The corresponding effect very often appears, even against the subject's will. Under pathological conditions we find this process very common : a stammerer, for example, can often speak quite well, when he does not think about his stammering ; as soon as he thinks of it, and as soon as the conviction that he will not be able to speak without stammering takes possession of him, that moment he begins to stammer. Now, as the idea of stammering is here generated by the person himself, while the above-mentioned idea of blushing was generated by another person, the last process, in which an outsider induces the idea is called external suggestion, or hetero-suggestion, the first self-suggestion or auto-suggestion.

Such auto-suggestions are not very uncommon as pathological incidents. Dread of open spaces (agoraphobia) is nothing but an auto-suggestion. The patient in this case is possessed by the idea that he cannot step across some open space ; no reasoning is of avail here. The patient acknowledges its justice without permitting it to influence him, because his auto-suggestion is too powerful. Asa rule, logic is for the most part powerless over these auto-suggestions. Many hysterical paralyses are likewise auto-suggestions ; thus a patient cannot move his legs because he is convinced that movement is impossible. If this conviction can be shaken, movement is at once practicable.

Auto-suggestion may be called up by some external cause ; this may affect the person from outside, and thus induce an auto-suggestion. Charcot refers some isolated traumatic paralyses to some such originating mechanism—though this point is still in debate. According to this view a violent blow on the arm, following on certain disturbances of sensibility, may produce in the person concerned a conviction that he cannot move his arm. As the conviction was called up by the blow, this case stands somewhere between external suggestion and auto-suggestion. We will call all cases in which the auto-suggestion did not arise spontaneously, but was the secondary result of something else, such as a blow, indirect suggestions; as opposed to direct suggestion, which arouses a certain idea immediately, of which I have already given several examples. It is, besides, not always necessary that there should be a conscious mental act in suggestion; individuality and habit sometimes replace this, and play a great part in the training of the subject, of which we have still to speak. For example, if some external sign, such as a blow on the arm, has several times, by means of a conscious mental act, produced the auto-suggestion that the arm is paralyzed, then the auto-suggestion may repeat itself later mechanically at every blow without any conscious thought about the effect of the blow.

A particular psychical state, disposing to suggestion, is a necessary condition of its appearance. The disposition to suggestion is called suggestibility ; it must be present and must precede the suggestion if the latter is to succeed (Bentivegni). A person in such a state is said to be suggestible.

We shall now see that we can in this way obtain many effects during hypnosis. We shall also see that we can produce these effects not only during hypnosis (hypnotic or intra-hypnotic suggestion), but that these extend to the time following. We call this post-hypnotic suggestion. By means of this we can tell the person in the hypnotic state that after his awakening a particular result will follow. We can also distinguish another kind of suggestion : something may be suggested to the subject before the hypnosis, which is to follow in that state. This is pre-hypnotic suggestion.

(I) Physiology.

We will now pass to a discussion of the functions of the individual organs. The alterations which we find in hypnosis affect the voluntary and involuntary muscles as well as the organs of sense, common sensation, the secretions, metabolism, and in rare cases also the cell power of organization.

The voluntary muscles show the most frequent abnormalities, and suggestion exercises a most extraordinary influence over their functions during hypnosis. We will ask, first of all, what is the state of the functions of the voluntary muscles during hypnosis, when no kind of external influence is exercised. There are the greatest differences, according to the method of hypnotization selected, and according to the character of the subject. Some are able to move with perfect freedom during hypnosis till the command of the experimenter inhibits some particular movement; many, on the contrary, look as if they were asleep. In this case we see no movements, or very rare ones, which are slow and laboured. When we discuss the phenomena of suggestion we shall see that this incapacity for movement cannot in rare cases be removed by the command of the hypnotist. It is to be understood that between complete freedom of movement and the incapacity to move at all there exist all sorts of transitional stages. It is all the same which of these characters has the preponderance ; muscular activity can nearly always be influenced in a high degree by suggestion. (*) By means of it we can make the existing movements impossible, or induce previously impossible ones.

(*) For the sake of brevity I shall for the future always use "suggestion" for "external suggestion" when the contrary is not expressly stated.

I have shown (p. 22) with my second subject how easily I can make his arm powerless to move, simply by arousing in him the conviction that the arm is powerless. In just the same way the movements of the legs, trunk, larynx, and so on, escape the subject's control. " You cannot raise your arm ; cannot put out your tongue." This suffices to make the forbidden movement impossible. In some cases the inability to move arises because the subject cannot voluntarily contract his muscles ; while in other cases a contracture of the antagonistic muscles makes every attempt at voluntary movement useless (Bleuler). Inthe same manner the leg will lose the power of motion at command. We have seen (p. 22) in the second experiment how the power of speech can also be taken away. And it is even possible to allow the muscles to contract for one particular purpose only. If we say to a hypnotic subject, " You can only say your name ; for the rest you are absolutely dumb," the desired effect will most surely be produced. In the same way it is possible to prevent movements of the arms for one particular purpose. Thuswe can make it impossible for a person to write, though he will be able to do any other kind of work. The subject can sew, play the piano, &c, but all efforts to write are vain. The movements only become possible at the moment when the experimenter gives permission. It is remarkable that in some persons one set of muscles is easier to influence by suggestion, and in others another set. For example, we can make a person dumb by suggestion, while all the other muscles obey his will in spite of suggestion. Another, again, loses the power of moving his arms at once, while his speech remains unaffected.

In just the same way as muscular movements are prevented by suggestion, so can movements be induced by it against, or without, the will of the subject. We have seen (p. 23) how the subject in the third experiment knelt down, followed me, and so forth. I say to another person, "You are lifting your right arm to lay it on your head." This happens at once. I would insist that it must be decided whether these movements take place without, or against, the will of the subject, as in the latter case an increase of sensibility is already demonstrated. I say, " Your left arm will now rise up in the air." And the arm rises as if drawn up by a string, although the subject makes no intentional movement; but neither does it occur to him to resist. The movements without the subject's will can often be distinguished from those against it by a certain steady ease. These last are nearly always characterized by strong muscular contractions, and by trembling, which shows the intense effort not to obey the will of the hypnotist.

Just in the same way the hypnotic subject is obliged to cough, laugh, talk, jump, &c, at command. It is further possible to generate by suggestion the idea of a paralysis of one of the extremities. These isolated paralyses have a great resemblance to the psychical paralyses arising without hypnosis, such as Russell Reynolds described in 1869, as "paralysis dependent on idea" ; and Erb, later on, as " paralysis by imagination." The pupils of Charcot have tried to find objective symptoms of these paralyses that depend on suggestion. It cannot be doubted that such objective changes may occur through a particular association of symptoms ; this hypothesis is supported by Krafft-Ebing also. We must, however, recognize that this is not the rule. According to Lober, Gilles de la Tourette, and Richer, the clinical characteristics of these paralyses are marked by the absolute loss of motor power and sensation, increase of the tendon reflexes, ankle clonus, wrist clonus, complete loss of muscular sense, i.e., of the ability to control perfectly the action of the muscles, and to be certain of the position of the limbs, changed electrical excitability, and vasomotor disturbances ; these last are particularly said to show themselves by a bright flush of the skin on slight stimulation. These paralyses can be produced in both the hypnotic and post-hypnotic states. Besides these atonic paralyses, in which the muscles are completely relaxed, other paralyses, in which the muscles are persistently contracted, can also be produced by suggestion.

With these subjects who are deprived of will, besides the movements described above, complicated movements, or even performances (if I may be allowed the expression), also take place by suggestion. I say to the subject, "You will spin round three times." Or again, "You must lift that thing off the table ; you must go and do it ; you cannot help it." The subject performs the command.

The suggestion itself is made in different ways. The main point, and all turns upon this, is that the subject should thoroughly understand what the experimenter wishes. Each of the organs of sense is a door of entrance for suggestion. The most common is naturally our habitual means of communication—speech (verbal suggestion)—by means of which we tell the subject what we wish. But it is very important, and much more effective than words alone, that the experimenter should accompany his words by a performance of the movement which the subject is intended to execute. Consequently professional magnetizers habitually induce movements by imitation. Heidenhain was at first by this led to the false conclusion that all these movements of hypnotics depended on imitation.

Imitation appears particularly in a hypnotic state, which certain authors (Bremaud, Morselli, Tanzi) have thoroughly studied, and which Descourtis calls fascination. I have shown (p. 23) in the third experiment a case of this kind. A professional magnetizer, Donato, has demonstrated this state completely ; and Morselli and others have on this account called this form of hypnosis Donatism.

As I saw in Paris, Donato uses a particular process to bring about this state. This process aims at a primary forced contracture of all the muscles of the body, in order, by this means, to limit the voluntary movements as much as possible. In this case the eyes of the hypnotist and the subject are firmly fixed on one another. The subject finally follows every movement of the experimenter. If he goes backward, the subject follows ; if he comes forward, the subject does the same. In the same way the latter imitates every movement of the experimenter, only on the condition, however, that he knows he is intended to do so. We see here, as in the above third experiment, that fascination may be a primary form of hypnosis. But it can also be originated secondarily out of the other hypnotic states; and this is more usual. When the experimenter has hypnotized the subject in some other way, and has made him open his eyes, he can fix his own steadily on them, and thus induce the same phenomena. A variety of this fascination is to fix the eyes of the subject on some other object—for example, on the finger of the experimenter. In this case the fascinated person follows every movement made by the finger.

But imitation plays an important role in hypnosis, as well as fascination. This results from the fact that the sight of a movement arouses a much more vivid mental picture of it in the hypnotized person than does a mere command ; this last is, however, a necessary condition for the success of the suggestion.

Verbal suggestion is also made easier by other gestures. In order to compel some one to kneel down, an energetic movement of the hand accompanying the verbal suggestion is very effective, as in the third experiment. With this fact is connected one of the phenomena which magnetizers are fond of exhibiting, namely, the drawing of the subject after the experimenter, who makes movements with his hand which show the subject that he is intended to approach.

The experimenter can also repel the subject in the same way. This succeeds in particular by means of movements of the hand, indicating that he is to go away. It is not at all necessary that the subject should see the movements of the experimenter ; it is sufficient that he should divine them either from a noise or a slight current of air; thus the hypnotic obeys the experimenter even when he has his back turned towards him. Upon the same phenomenon depend the attraction and repulsion of single limbs of the subject, which happen in the same way, through the hypnotic's perception of the experimenter's gestures. The experimenter can make the subject raise and drop his hand, merely by gesticulating with his own ; he can also obtain many effects by a glance only. It is not necessary to look steadily in the eyes of the hypnotic, as in fascination. The operator looks at the subject's leg—it at once becomes powerless to move. The hypnotic is going away—the experimenter looks at a spot on the floor and he stands chained to the spot. These phenomena vividly recall the " evil eye," the fascinating gaze, and so on, by means of which an evil influence was supposed to be exercised.

I will mention here that not only speech but also music has a suggestive effect. If dance music is played the subject will dance, following the rhythm, and when the dance is changed to another he alters his step to correspond. The influence of music upon human beings has long been known, and is striking in hypnosis. By means of music during hypnosis all sorts of different moods and feelings can be aroused corresponding to the kind of music. Naturally, the subject must have a taste for music, otherwise it will have no influence. Mesmer long ago recognized this influence of music, and used a then newly-invented instrument, the bell-harmonica, to obtain the necessary effect.

The muscular sense, which keeps us informed of the position of our limbs, requires particular consideration as a way of entrance for suggestion. It causes the phenomenon which the school of Nancy calls " catalepsyby suggestion " ;(*) which is also to be found in other states than hypnosis—for example, in some cases of typhus fever (Bernheim). It is very common in hypnosis, and is shown in the following example: I lift the arm of a hypnotic, hold it in the air, and then let go ; the arm remains as I placed it, although I say nothing. Why does this happen ? Because the subject believes he must leave his arm thus, and because this suggestion was conveyed to him by the muscular sense. Another person lets his arm fall; I raise it again, and say at the same time, "The arm keeps still ;" which happens ; but only because the person now knows that this is intended, while he did not understand the simple raising of the arm. Let us return to the first subject. I raise the arm again, saying, "Now the arm falls down;" which, in fact, happens; evidently only because the person believes that he is to let it fall. The legs, head, trunk, and so forth, can be put into the most different postures and maintained there in exactly the same way; the muscular sense here is the only transmitter of the suggestion. The inclination of the subject to maintain cataleptic positions is so great that Heidenhain considered the hypnotic state to be a catalepsy artificially produced Catalepsy by suggestion has nothing whatever to do with physical alterations of the muscles.

(*) As the most different views exist as to what " Catalepsy" means, I remark here that, for the sake of brevity, I shall so name any state in which voluntary movements disappear and the limbs remain as they are placed by the experimenter without having regard to the length of time which elapses before t he limbs move freely again, or fall from their own weight.

The main point for the attainment of catalepsy is that the subject should accept the idea of the corresponding attitude. Consequently the idea must take root before the desired result can be attained. For this purpose some means or other must be employed to allow it to operate during a certain period. Words answer the purpose as well as other signs ; many persons can only be thrown into catalepsy from suggestion when the attitude required is maintained for some time.

The mesmeric passes (p. 29), which I have mentioned as a method of hypnotizing, here deserve especial mention. These mesmeric passes can be used locally in hypnosis—for example, over an arm, in order to make it cataleptic. As far as I have been able to study these phenomena, it is unnecessary in their case to imagine any special force as an explanation. According to my view the efficiency of the mesmeric passes results from the fact that by means of them the whole attention of the subject is directed to his arm for a long time. By this means the idea has time to take root. Let any one allow his arm or leg to be mesmerized in this fashion and he will find that his whole attention is directed to this part of his body, and much more strongly directed than if the attention was concentrated on the limb in another manner. From this it follows also that contractures often only appear when the mesmeric passes have drawn the attention for some time to the part of the body concerned. The passes with contact act in exactly the same way as the passes without contact. In any case—and this is important—the effect only appears when the individual has an idea of what is intended to follow. That centrifugal passes call up contractions and centripetal ones dissipate them, is a phenomenon frequently mentioned ; but we appear to have to do here with unintentional suggestions. Besides, I have been as often able to do the same thing with centripetal passes as with centrifugal.

We thus see in what manner suggestion affects the movements. A particular attitude is adopted by the subject because the corresponding idea has been implanted in him by the operator.

Such an implanted idea has yet another particular effect in hypnosis. It has often a tendency to fix itself firmly in the mind and consequently to exercise a longer continued effect. This continuation of the effect may express itself in three ways : firstly, by the fact that a certain state of contraction is continued for a long period—there is, in fact, a contracture; secondly, by a particular long-continued movement; thirdly,by the fact that when the muscles are relaxed a contraction of them can only be obtained with difficulty or not at all. I am decidedly of opinion that these phenomena of the muscles must be distinguished from suggestion ; they certainly produce a particular function, but do not explain its long duration. Sometimes it is not even possible to counteract the effect of the first suggestion by a second.

I order a person to stretch out his right arm stiffly. The arm is stretched out, and the subject is unable to bend it of his own accord ; that is, the muscles are in a state of contracture. In most cases, directly I command the arm to be bent it can be done. But there are some cases in which the experimenter is unable to put an end to the contracture at once, because the effect of the earlier idea continues. The stronger was the contraction of the muscles the more difficult it is to put an end at once to the state of contracture. A particular movement can also be continued for a long time in the same way. The so-called automatic movements (Liebeault, Bernheim), or continued movements, as Max Dessoir calls them, belong to the same category. If we turn the arms of a hypnotic round and round each other, he has a tendency to continue the movement after the operator has ceased to compel it. This happens because the subject believes that he has been ordered to go on. In some cases he continues turning his arms passively, while on other occasions he makes the strongest possible effort to keep them still, particularly when requested to do so. This resistance is useless, however; in spite of all exertion of the will the movement is continued. A new suggestion of the experimenter, that the arms shall stop, is enough in most cases to arrest the movements. Sometimes the idea has taken root so strongly that the experimenter finds it impossible to obtain an arrest at once by a counter-command. I have often observed that a movement has continued for some time in spite of my order. The most varied movements arc continued in this manner after they have once begun. I lift up an arm and bend it gently at the elbow joint; directly I let go it repeats the movement. If it is desired that the hypnotic shall walk, and he does not obey the command, let him be pulled forward a little; he will then, when left to himself, continue to walk (Heidenhain). The involuntary laughter, which I have often heard, is connected with this ; it begins at command, or on a slight provocation. It can be put an end to neither by the order of the experimenter nor by the will of the hypnotic. Obersteiner, who first began the scientific study of hypnotism in Austria, has observed the automatic laugh in his own case, and has described it. We can also induce alternate movements of drawing up and stretching out in the arm or leg, and nodding or shaking of the head, &c.

In some cases the passivity of the subject is so great that the idea of a movement will not take root at all. In this case the suggestion of the experimenter is unable to overcome the muscular relaxation. Subjects of this kind let their arms drop after they have been raised, in spite of all suggestions. Questions are not answered, or only slight movements of the lips show that they have been heard at all. Two different types of hypnosis, which are called active and passive, may be distinguished by the presence or absence of this muscular relaxation. The passive form has a greater external likeness to natural sleep, while the active might be taken for a waking state on superficial observation. Passive hypnosis is not regarded by some authors (Braid) as a form of hypnosis, but is considered to be a sleep, because the especial symptom is wanting which every investigator regards as the necessary characteristic of hypnosis, namely, catalepsy. This does not appear to me absolutely necessary in order to show hypnosis. Hypnosis often shows itself as passive at the beginning ; as soon as the eyes are closed the head drops forward, or backward, while the supporting muscles of the neck are relaxed. There are many transitional states between active and passive hypnosis, and one often passes into the other.

The motor disturbances which appear in the eye must here be particularly discussed. We have dready seen that many hypnoses are characterized only by the closing of the eyes, while in many cases this is added to other symptoms. But the closing of the eyes can also be influenced by suggestion, and an order of the experimenter is enough in most cases to cause their instantaneous opening. Closing of the eyes greatly favours the appearance of other hypnotic phenomena, but is not absolutely indispensable.

There are persons who can be thrown into the deepest stage of hypnosis by a fixed gaze, without closing the eyes at all (Gurney).

It must be mentioned that Heidenhain already knew and recognized the closing of the eyes as the only symptom of hypnosis. It is so much the more astonishing that the knowledge of this light hypnotic state was afterwards completely lost. Two years ago, when I threw a person in the Women's Hospital at Berlin into this hypnotic state by means of the Nancy process, Professor Ewald, who had made earlier fruitless attempts with the same person by means of fixing the eyes, believed that the closing of the eyes was simulated. These light states were then very little known.

Although, then, as we say, closing of the eyes is not a necessary preface to hypnosis, yet the eyes are in most cases closed, and it is often impossible to permit them to open without ending the hypnosis at once. Even when the eyes open during a long hypnosis, there is in many cases a certain heaviness in the lids and a desire to close them. Much depends, however, upon the method employed ; and primary fascination in particular always occurs while the eyes are wide open. The closing of the eyes is sometimes very gentle, and not spasmodic; though I have seen the muscles which close the eye contract spasmodically in a large number of cases. Braid and Heidenhain already pointed out that when the lids close, even in the deepest hypnosis, the closing is not complete. There is often a slight chink of opening, and this is not unimportant, because many experiments in clairvoyance, and also pretended reading with the pit of of the stomach, may be explained by the ability to see through this small opening. In any case the closing of the eyes is a common occurrence in hypnosis, especially when the Nancy method is used.

Everybody will remember that a heaviness of the eyelids and a feeling of fatigue about the eyes is one of the first symptoms of natural sleep.

While the eyes are closed the lids not unseldom have a vibratory, trembling movement; but this symptom is of no real importance for diagnosis, as on the one hand it is sometimes wanting and on the other hand often appears without hypnosis. We often see the eyeballs roll upwards as the eyes are rinsing. While in some cases this position of the eyeball is maintained, in other cases the eyeball resumes its natural position directly the eyes are closed. If this does not take place, the white sclerotic only is visible when the lids are artificially raised.

I have only been able to find the convergence of the pupils described by some observers in one case of hystero-epilepsy. Borel affirms that this convergence can occasionally be obtained by suggestion. If the eyes are open, a slight state of exophthalmos is said to be observed ; however, this symptom appears only to occur when the method of fixed attention is used.

As we have seen, the voluntary muscles are entirely under the influence of external suggestion during hypnosis. A further peculiarity is, that a particular movement or state of contraction of the muscles cannot always be controlled at once ; and finally, we have seen that in some cases muscular contraction can only be brought about with difficulty or not at all. One of these two functional abnormalities of the muscles exists in all hypnotic states. Though it is occasionally confined to an inability to open the eyes, in other hypnotic states the functions of other muscles of the body are affected. The different phases result, then, from various combinations of the above-mentioned abnormalities, and from their different localization in the muscles. The various kinds of catalepsy arise in this manner. Bernheim distinguishes several forms of this catalepsy, according to the facility with which the cataleptic position can be changed. Sometimes this is very easily done, sometimes with more difficulty, as in tonic contracture ; the flexibilitas cerea forms an intermediate stage. These different kinds of catalepsy are affairs of hypnotic training and suggestion (Berger). I have never clearly seen a typical flexibilitas cerea in hypnosis, except when the training of the subject had been directed to that point. It appears from a remark of Nonne concerning the flexibilitas cerea, that he has collected other experiences regarding it. On that account I would say emphatically that I mean here the typical flexibilitas cerea, in which the feeling of resistance is the same as if we were bending limbs of wax ; this feeling of resistance must further be uniform, it must not be stronger at one moment than at another. According to my experience a flexibilitas cerea taken in this sense is only to be obtained in hypnosis by training. In any case all these phenomena are of a purely psychical nature. One of the best known features in hypnosis is the rigidity of the whole body. There is sometimes a complete tonic contracture of nearly all the voluntary muscles, through which the head, neck, trunk, and legs become as stiff as a board. A well-known experiment can be carried out in this state : the head can be placed on one chair and the feet on another, and the body will not double up. A heavy weight, that of a man, for example, may even be placed upon the body without bending it. It is not astonishing, after what I have said of the effect of the mesmeric passes, that this stiffening should be more easily induced by their means ; it cannot always be induced by mere verbal suggestion. A command or sign of the experimenter generally suffices to put an end to the rigidity.

We must now ask whether any further abnormalities appear in the voluntary muscles during hypnosis. Changes which are supposed not to be of psychical nature have often been assumed. It is frequently maintained that reflex action is altered in hypnosis, that reflexes appear which do not appear in normal conditions. Heidenhain and Charcot are particularly to be mentioned among those who have expressed this view. Charcot bases his classification of the hypnotic states upon the alteration of the reflexes ; so I will here briefly give the chief characteristics of his three stages.

Charcot distinguishes a grand hypnotisme and a petit hypnotisme. The last he does not describe in detail ; in the first, which is found in hystero-epileptics, he distinguishes three stages:—I. The cataleptic stage, which is produced by a sudden loud noise, or results from the opening of the subject's eyes while he is in the lethargic stage ; in this stage the position of the limbs is easily changed while the hypnotic's eyes are open. Every position which is given to the limbs is maintained for some time, but is also easily changed by the experimenter without resistance on the part of the subject ; there is also no wax-like flexibility ( flexibilitas cerea). No tendon reflex, no increase of muscular irritability. There is analgesia, but it is possible to exercise a certain influence over the subject through sight, hearing, and the muscular sense. 2. The lethargic stage. It can be induced primarily by fixed attention, or secondarily out of the cataleptic stage by closing the eyes. The subject is unconscious and not accessible to external influences, and there is analgesia. The limbs are relaxed and fall by their own weight; the eyes are closed, the tendon reflexes increased. There is increased excitability of the muscles, the so-called neuro-muscular hyper-excitability. These increases are demonstrated by mechanical stimulation of the muscles, nerves, or tendons. For example, if the ulnar nerve is pressed a contraction of all the muscles which it supplies follows, so that a characteristic posture of the fingers results ; if a muscle is stimulated, it alone contracts. The same thing is attained by this as by local faradization in normal states, which was shown by Duchenne. While at the extremities the contraction passes into contracture—that is, becomes permanent—a stimulation of the facial nerve only causes a simple contraction in the face, which soon ceases. The resolution of the resulting contracture is produced by exciting the antagonistic muscles ; thus, for example, a contracture of the wrist is put an end to by excitation of the extensors, and the contracture of one sternomastoid by stimulation of the other. It is striking that, according to Charcot, the motor parts of the cerebral cortex, can be stimulated through the cranium by means of the galvanic current, so that the muscles in connection with them contract. 3. The somnambulic stage. In some persons it arises primarily by means of fixed attention ; it can be induced in all by friction on the crown of the head during the lethargic or cataleptic stages. The eyes are closed or half-closed. By means of gentle stimulation of the skin the underlying muscles can be put into rigid contraction, but not, however, by stimulation of themuscles, nerves, or tendons, as in the lethargic stage. Also the contracture does not disappear on simulation of the antagonistic muscles as in that stage.The posture of the limbs produced by contracture in somnambulism cannot also be so easily altered asin catalepsy ; a certain resistance appears, as in flexibilitas cerea ; Charcot calls it the cataleptoid state. The same stimulation of the skin which induced the contractures also resolves them. In somnambulism many external influences are possible by means of suggestion, of which I will speak later in their proper connection.

With regard to these stages of Charcot, most investigators doubt if they really exist, and think that theyare only an artificial product, the result of an unintentional training process. It is certainly striking,that since the school of Nancy pointed this out, and since it has shown the many sources of error that should be avoided, the stages of Charcot are less and lessfrequently observed. Wetterstrand never found them at all among 3,589 different persons (Pauly) ; experimenters who have occasionally observed them, themselves remark that they only appear in certain persons after numerous experiments (Stembo). I have been as little able as have many others to observe the stages of Charcot in my experiments ; though even a thousand negative results would not be able to overthrow one positive result of Charcot's.

I have besides often experimented on several hystero-epileptics, but have failed to observe the stages, in spite of Richer's opinion that every one who experimentson such persons will obtain the same results as the school of Charcot. However, I think it possible thatin some few cases of hystero-epilepsy the stages do exist. But let us confine ourselves to these few cases ; let us give them no greater importance than docs Charcot himself, who by no means insists that these three stages are always to be found. Even those authors who on the whole accept Charcot's stages agree that there are many exceptions.

Charcot himself lays the chief stress on the variations of muscular excitability in the different stages. Dumontpallier and Magnin, however, maintain that the increase of neuro-muscular excitability is by no means confined to the lethargic stage, but appears in all of them. They have likewise pointed out that there are numerous mixed states (etats mixtes) in which the symptoms, partly of the lethargic and partly of the cataleptic stages, show themselves. Richer finds single cases in which the catalepsy is signalized by greater rigidity and disposition to contracture. Tamburini and Seppilli find a lethargy with hyperesthesia of the ovaries. Jules Janet again has produced a fourth stage in Wit.,—one of the best-known of Charcot's subjects—which is distinguished from the three others, both physically and mentally. Besides which, many deviations from the types of the three stages are to be found in the writings of Charcot's pupils. Thus Richer describes forms of lethargy, in which the subject performs movements at command, and Gilles de la Tourette describes a lucid lethargy, in which there was no loss of consciousness. In any case the idea of the stages has become somewhat confused, as an attempt has been made to include everything possible under them. Every one looked for the stages ; when he could not find them, as was usually the case, he believed himself obliged to add certain new characteristics to them.

The methods used to induce the different stages have a very doubtful value. Magnin maintains that all the stages can be brought on by one particular stimulation—for example, by pressure on the crown of the head. Which stage appears, depends, he says, upon the duration of the stimulation. Dumontpallier and Magnin have besides asserted that the same method which induces a stage will also cause it to disappear (l'agent qui fait defaif) ; for example, if catalepsy is caused by a dazzling ray of light it disappears when a new ray of light falls on the eye. Braid formerly maintained something of the same kind (Max Dessoir).

The main point, however, is that Charcot and his pupils describe specific muscular phenomena, which are supposed to appear without a psychical cause. Thus, as we have seen, contractions of the muscles are said to arise during the lethargic stage by means of pressure on the nerves ; muscles are contracted by stimulation of the skin without any mental act taking place ; that is, without the subject's knowing thata muscle is to contract, or which muscle it will be. Heidenhain stated exactly the same thing, except that he found no contractures from pressure on the nerves, but only from stimulation of the skin. Heidenhain also believes that these contractures occur without any participation of the consciousness, and that they are reflexes, which are set going by stimulation of the skin. According to Heidenhain's view only the underlying muscles contract through gentle stimulation ; by means of stronger stimulation neighbouring ones also contract, and the consequent contracture spreads, in proportion to the strength of the stimulation. In this manner Heidenhain considers the tonic spasm or rigidity, which is seen in hypnosis, to ba reflex. Heidenhain tried to find new reflexes. By means of stimulation of certain tracts of the skin particular movements were supposed by him to be induced ; thus stimulation of the neck produced vocal sound—as in Goltz's experiments. Born also believed he had discovered a series of new reflexes, which might be seen after stroking certain portions of the skin.

The much-discussed question, whether in the experiments of Heidenhain and Charcot we have really to do with reflexes or not, is not easy to answer, because many physiologists do not distinguish with sufficient clearness between two sorts of reflexes—the physical and the mental. In order to render this clear I must make a short digression and say something about reflex action. We understand by reflex action of the muscles that particular action which is induced by excitation of a sensory nerve, without the co-operation of the will. When, for example, an insect flies into the eye it closes ; this closing is reflex, because it is involuntary. When on another occasion the eye is voluntarily closed, this is no reflex, but a voluntary movement, so that the same movement may be performed either voluntarily or by reflex action. Let us take the following case : I touch the eye of a person (A.) ; the eye closes in consequence by reflex action, that is, without the participation of A.'s will. I bring my hand near to the eye of another person (B.); long before it is touched it closes, not only without, but also against, B.'s will. The closing of B.'s eye is also reflex action ; the stimulation here affects the nerves of sight. And yet there is a great difference between the closing of A.'s eye and the closing of B.'s. While in the case of A. no mental action is necessary to produce the reflex, in the case of B. it is otherwise. He shuts his eye because he imagines that it will be touched—at least, this is the general opinion. If B. puts his own finger near his eye it does not close, because this idea does not then arise.In any case a decided mental action takes placein B. and not in A. On this account we call theclosing of B.'s eye a mental reflex, and A.'s a physical one. The mental reflexes are extremely common ; stooping at the whistling of a bullet, laughing at sight of a clown, sickness produced by a disgusting smell, are mental reflexes. The involuntarymuscular action is caused by a stimulation of the eye, ear, or sense of smell, after the stimulation has beeninterpreted in a particular way by the consciousness.

The classification of the reflexes into physical and mental is not valueless for us ; I think it better at present to keep to this classification, although it isonly schematic, and although an authority as highas Lewes supposes a mental action in all reflexes. Gurney, Max Dessoir, and Huckel, have directed attention to the importance of mental reflexes for hypnosis. Heidenhain and Charcot denied any mental action in the contractures which theyinduced; the Nancy school, on the contrary, believes that it occurs, that the subject knows what isintended to result, but that his will is unable to prevent the contracture; this is called a suggestion, and is only a kind of mental reflex. Consequently the question put forward above, whether Heidenhain's and Charcot's contractures are reflexes, may be thus modified : Have we to do as these authors suppose, with physical reflexes, or with mental ones?

Without wishing to maintain a priori that the views of Heidenhain and Charcot are mistaken, I should say that they would at least require careful examination before they could be accepted. Nowadays, when we know from Bernheim, Forel, Delboeuf, and others, that these things can all, or almost all, be brought about by suggestion—that is, by means of the hypnotic's belief in their appearance—we are obliged to suppose that this is actually the case whenever suggestion is not rigidly excluded in experiment. Heidenhain's experiments offer no guarantee on this point. As the influence of suggestion was then unknown, it was naturally not excluded, and it even appears, from Heidenhain's publications, that the experiments proposed were discussed before the subject. When, then, Heidenhain maintains that the contractures spread according to rule, and even according to the laws for physical reflexes laid down by Pfluger, my own experiments oblige me to doubt it; according to these the contractures progress in proportion to the hypnotic's comprehension of the experimenter's wish or command ; so that there can be no question of an adherence to rule.

With regard to Charcot's propositions I will discuss later some particular points—for example, the loss of consciousness in lethargy. I will only remark here that most of the phenomena can be explained by suggestion. In the contractures of somnambulism the thing is clear. Nothing is easier than to cause such contractures by suggestion. If it is to be proved that these really occur without suggestion, suggestion must first be excluded. Only the publication of more exact and detailed accounts of the first experiments made with these subjects would convince us that it was excluded. Unconscious and unintentional suggestion is the greatest source of error in hypnotic investigation. I should conjecture that the contractures of somnambulism are only brought about by mental action. This is also to be concluded from another phenomenon. We have seen above, in the fourth experiment, that only one person, the experimenter, can influence the subject, is in rapport with him, as the technical term goes. Only the experimenter can induce contraction of the muscles ; stimulation by other persons has no effect. If the contractions were produced without participation of the consciousness, this would be incomprehensible. Charoot's pupils also speak of this phenomenon ; they assert that in somnambulism certain persons only can influence the muscular action of the hypnotics by stimulation of the skin ; those persons, that is, who are in rapport with the subject. This decidedly favours the view that the contractures are caused by an act of consciousness ; though Charcot's pupils have not drawn this evident conclusion.

In the case of contractures in lethargy the question israther more complicated, particularly in those where a certain group of muscles—for example, those of the ulnar nerve—are acted upon, or those in which an isolated muscle is excited. It would be well here, also,if more exact accounts of the first experiments werepublished. For it can hardly be avoided, that when the same experiments are repeated certain indications should be given, from which the subject draws conclusions as to what he is expected to do.

I have no doubt that by means of such indications eventolerably complicated movements, such as an isolated contracture of the muscles supplied by the ulnarnerve, can be induced ; that is, purely by suggestion. With the quick perceptions which hypnotics possess,they could easily be brought to this point. I do not think it at all impossible to induce by suggestion the fewmovements which Charcot shows in his public classes. I also should note particularly that Jendrassik, an adherent of Charcot, who accepts his classification of the stages of hypnosis, thinks that the contracture of lethargy is brought about by suggestion only.

It must be admitted that Richer emphatically asserts that in these experiments, which were varied a thousandfold, the results were always identical, that imitation was excluded, and that the stimulation of muscles and nerves at once caused the corresponding contractures which very few physicans would be able intentionally to induce. But it may be concluded from the statement of Vigouroux that the thing is not so plain. He excepts the deltoid muscle from the rule. Gilles de la Tourette also says that the results were only attained after long previous experiment. I will not permit myself to pronounce a final judgment upon contractures in lethargy ; in my opinion it is not yet settled whether they take place with or without suggestion.

The phenomena of imitative speech (echolalie), observed by Heidenhain and Berger belong to this section. Berger says that hypnotics will repeat everything that is said before them, like phonographs ; even what is said in foreign languages is repeated with some exactness. The notion that only certain tracts of the bodily surface must be stimulated in order to produce this repetition (Heidenhain, Berger) may be considered a mistake, the result of insufficient acquaintance with suggestion on the part of the Breslau investigators. I believe that the hypnotic echoes what he believes he is intended to echo. It is certain that some persons are able to perform great feats in this way, imitating a hitherto unknown language quickly and correctly, particularly after the necessary practice. It is perfectly indifferent whether the speach be addressed to the stomach, or the neck— thiswas supposed to be the sensitive region—or to anyother part of the body. The main point is that the hypnotic should know he is intended to repeat the sounds. Certain reflexes, which are supposed to be induced by touching the head, the appearance of aphasia, or of twitchings or contractures in the arm or leg on touching certain parts of the cranium, should be understood in the same way ; statements of this kind were made by Heidenhain, and have been repeated lately by Silva, Binet, and Fere. These last evenbelieve that they can place single limbs in the somnambulic state by stimulating the parts of the head which correspond to the motor centres of the limbs concerned. The experiments have not been carried out with sufficient caution. It is inexplicable that the result should be attained by pressure on the head, and the reference of these authors to the phrenology of Gall explains nothing. Chalande even wishes to study the physiology of the brain in this way (Delboeuf). What would our physiologists say if, in order to stimulate some portion of the brain, it were only necessary to rub the cranium on the corresponding spot during hypnosis? The method would certainly be practicable on account of its simplicity, but unfortunately it is founded on inexact observations, and is perfectly useless. Braid described similar phenomena, which he called phreno-hypnotic. He invented explanations, which were themselves in need of explanation. One of Braid's suppositions wasthat there was a kind of reflex stimulus. By pressure on a portion of the skull a nerve was stimulated which by reflex action excited a part of the brain, and by this means excited feelings of benevolence, for example; by stimulating another spot, another nerve was excited, which by reflex action produced an expression of piety, &c. Braid appears to have given up phreno-hypnotism later (Preyer).

Let me here point out that it is possible to induce hemi-hypnosis, or hypnosis of one side, by suggestion, or to influence each half of the body in a different way. It was known even to Braid that by blowing on one eye the corresponding side could be awakened. Descourtis, Charcot, Dumontpallier, Berillon, Lepine, Strohl, as well as Grutzner, Heidenhain, and Berger, who were under Kayser's influence, carried on these experiments in various modified forms ; Berger later on changed his views. Though these authors regard hemi-hypnosis as a physiological condition induced by the closing of one eye or by friction of one-half of the crown of the head, their statements do not now prove their point. We know by this time that we can produce all these states by mental influence, and suggestion must be excluded before the experiments can be considered conclusive. It appears very probable, from Heidenhain's publications, that the expected results were discussed in the presence of the subject, who only needed to divine the expected result to act accordingly. Sometimes stroking the left side of the head was supposed to make the left half of the body hypnotic ; sometimes the result followed on the right side. The rules which Heidenhain laid down on this question are not tenable. The main point still is that the subject shall know what is intended to happen to him, and what effect is expected from the processes.

As is evident from what has been said, I regard the functional changes which the voluntary muscles show in hypnosis as dependent on central conditions ; a suggested idea can cause either paralysis or movement of the limbs. The question must now be discussed whether, in consequence of this suggestive central action, alterations in the functions of the muscles may appear which are not normally to be found, that is, whether the action causes objective abnormalities which could not be induced by the will of the hypnotic.

A priori, I think the probability that there are such changes is not great, for it cannot be supposed that an idea which I implant in the subject should have more effect than the idea he himself originates. If, then, there are some symptoms which are characteristic, this proves that the idea called up by external suggestion, and the self-suggested idea, have different effects on the functions ; or else that the muscles are influenced in hypnosis by something besides suggestion, i.e., the propensity to contracture, of which I have spoken above. We must understand the objective phenomena in one way or the other. I have already spoken of the physical symptoms of suggested paralyses. I will here mention a few other cases in which suggestion heightened the normal muscular powers.

The cataleptic posture of the limbs is sometimes maintained for a very long time, even for several hours. One person remained for seventeen hours in a cataleptic posture. Berger mentions the case of a young girl who maintained this condition without perceptible change for seven hours, during which she was continually watched. In these cases the fatigue and pain which ordinarily follow on great muscular exertion do not ensue. Great fatigue rarely results even when the same position is maintained for as long as an hour. Some distinctly marked cases of imitative speech (ccholalie) must be mentioned here. Braid relates that a hypnotized girl once imitated some of the songs of the famous Jenny Lind perfectly, which she was quite incapable of doing in the waking state. Braid attributes this feat to the delicacy of hearing and of the muscular sense in hypnosis.

However, we find in hypnosis frequent connecting links with the normal life. We see that in hypnosis an arm remains longer in the position commanded than a leg, for example. This is because the muscles of the leg are more difficult to fix in any desired posture than those of the arm ; the leg falls more quickly by its own weight

Dynamometric investigations, that is, measurements of the muscular force, have often been undertaken during hypnosis. I myself have made a number of such investigations, which for the most part agreed with the results of Beaunis. The most important point appears to me to be that in most cases the muscular force is lessened in hypnosis. I have seldom found it increased. I have made these investigations during the different hypnotic states, but have hardly ever found an increase. However, there are variations, and I have occasionally seen the strength of one hand increase while that of the other diminished. I have also obtained different results at different times with the same person. When there were such variations they were always of small amount, and they are the less important that all dynamometric investigations suffer from certain sources of error.

We may here consider the electric excitability of the nerves and muscles, to which little attention has hitherto been paid. Moriz Rosenthal finds an increase of electric sensibility in hypnosis. Tereg also found changes in one case, which, however, was investigated without the galvanometer ; and Marina has done the same in the case of a person in the waking state who, however, had often been hypnotized. I, for my part, like Heidenhain, Berger, and Rieger, have been unable to discover anything of importance in this direction. I have tried more than a hundred different experiments without finding a perceptible difference on this point between the hypnotic and waking states. I made my experiments with the galvanic and faradic current; I always us