GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

In order to give the reader an idea of the phenomena of hypnotism it will be best, first of all, to describe a few experiments. The phenomena will in this way be made more comprehensible than by means of any number of definitions.

First Experiment. I begin the experiments with a young man of twenty. I request him to scat himself on a chair, and give him a button to hold, telling him to look at it fixedly. After three minutes his eyelids fall ; he tries in vain to open his eyes, which are fast closed ; his hand, which until now has grasped the button, drops upon his knee. I assure him that it is impossible for him to open his eyes. (He makes vain efforts to open them.) I now say to him, "Your hands are stuck fast to your knee; you cannot possibly raise them." (He raises his hands, however.) I continue to converse with him ; I find that he is perfectly conscious, and I can discover no essential change in him whatever. I raise one of his arms ; directly I let go, he drops it as he pleases. Upon which I blow upon his eyes, which open at once, and he is in the same state as before experiment. The young man remembers all that I have said to him. The only striking thing is, therefore, that he could not open his eyes, and that he feels a certain degree of fatigue.

Second Experiment. This is a woman of fifty-three. When she has seated herself on a chair I place myself before her ; I raise my hands, and move them downwards, with the palms towards her, from the top of the head to about the pit of the stomach. I hold my hands so that they may not touch her, at a distance of from two to four centimetres. As soon as my hands come to the lowest part of the stroke I carry them in a wide sweep with outspread arms up over the subject's head. Ithen repeat exactly the same movements ; that is, passes from above downwards, close to the body, and continue this for about ten minutes. At the end of this time the subject is sitting with closed eyes, breathing deeply and peacefully. When I ask her to raise her arms, she raises them only slightly ; they then fall down again heavily. When I ask her how she feels, she explains that she is very tired. I forbid her to open her eyes. (She makes useless attempts to open them.) Now I lift up her right arm ; it remains in the air, even after I have let go. I command her to drop her arm. (She drops it.) I lift it again, and again it remains in the air ; upon which I request her to drop her arm, declaring at the same time that she cannot do it. (She now makes vain efforts to drop her arm, but it remains in the air.) The same thing happens with the other arm. When I forbid her she is unable to drop it; she cannot pronounce her own name directly I have assured her that she is dumb. (She only makes movements with her mouth, without producing any sound.) I tell her that now she can speak. (She speaks at once.) I say to her : " You hear music." (The woman shakes her head to shothat she hears no music.) I wake her by passes from below, upwards, over the surface of her body, turning the brick of the hand towards her. (She now opens her eyes, and can control 'all her movements.)

We see here, then, that not only are the eyes closed during hypnosis, but that all sorts of different movements become impossible to the subject when I forbid them.

Third Experiment. This is with a boy of sixteen, whom I have hypnotized several times. I request him to look me straight in the eyes. After he has done this for some time I take him by the hand and draw him along with me. Then I let go, but our eyes remain fixed on each other's. Then I lift up my right arm. (The boy does the same.) I raise my left arm. (He does the same.) I make him understand by a gesture that he must kneel down. (He does so.) He tries to rise, but does not succeed so long as I look at him, and fix him to the floor by a movement of the hand. Finally I cease to look at him ; the charm is at once broken.

We see here, then, a young man whose movements take the character of imitation, and whose eyes at the same time are wide open and fixed upon mine.

Fourth Experiment. Mr. X., forty-one years old, peats himself on a chair. I tell him that he must try to sleep. " Think of nothing but that you are to go to sleep." After some seconds I continue : " Now your eyelids are beginning to close; your eyes are growing more and more fatigued; the lids quiver more and more. You feel tired all over ; your arms go to sleep ; your legs grow tired ; a feeling of heaviness and the desire for sleep take possession of your whole body. Your eyes close ; your head feels duller ; your thoughts grow more and more confused. Now you can no longer resist ; now your eyelids are closed. Sleep ! " After the eyelids have closed I ask him if he can open them. (He tries to do so, but they are too heavy.) I raise his left arm high in the air. (It remains in the air, and. cannot be brought down in spite of all his efforts.) I ask him if he is asleep. " Yes." " Fast asleep ?" " Yes." " Do you hear the canary singing?" "Yes." "Now you hear the concert ? " " Certainly." Upon this I take a black cloth and put it into his hand. " You feel this dog quite plainly ? " " Quite plainly." " Now you can open your eyes. You will see the dog clearly. Then you will go to sleep again, and not wake till I tell you." (He opens his eyes, looks at the imaginary dog and strokes it.) I take the cloth out of his hand, and lay it on the floor. He stands up and reaches out for it.) Although he is in my room, when I tell him that he is in the Zoological Gardens he believes it and sees trees, and so on.

In this case X. is thrown into the hypnotic state by my arousing in his mind an image of the sleep. This manner of hypnotizing is used by the Nancy investigators, and may be called the method of Nancy. The subject is completely without a will of his own. It is not only possible in his case to prevent the most various movements by a mere prohibition, but I can also control his sense perceptions. On my assurance, he thinks he hears a canary, or hears music. He takes a handkerchief for a dog, and believes himself to be in the Zoological Gardens when he is in my room. But the following phenomenon is still more striking. X. hears all that I say to him, and allows himself to be influenced by me in every way. Yet two other men, A. and B., who are present, appear not to be observed by the hypnotic at all. A. lifts up the arm of the subject; the arm falls loosely down, and when A. desires the arm to remain in the air the subject takes no notice. He obeys my orders only, and is en rapport with me only. In order to wake him I now call to him : " Wake up !" He wakes at once, but only remembers going to sleep; of what happened during the sleep he knows nothing.

I interrupt here for a time the description of the experiments ; I shall describe others in the course of this work, and shall occasionally return to those already depicted. I will merely remark that in all these experiments, however different they might be, the voluntary movements were always inhibited, that in one case hallucinations of the senses could be induced, and that it was possible for me in all cases to converse with the subject, and we could understand each other.

I wished to bring forward these examples in order that the reader might understand to a certain extent, in spite of the absence of living subjects, what different states are included in the idea of hypnosis, and how it is induced and terminated. The above experiments are typical, and every one who makes proper experiments can always repeat them.

At the conclusion of these experiments I add a short Terminology, which, however, is by no means complete, as some particular ideas can only be made clear in the further course of the work.

I mean by hypnosis the state into which the subjects were thrown during the experiments described above.

Hypnotism is not the name of the state itself, but of the whole science which deals with the phenomena of this state.

A person in the hypnotic state is called a hypnotic, or subject.

A hypnotist is a man who hypnotizes for scientific purposes. A hypnotizer is a man who makes hypnotism a profession.

The different commands which are given to the subjects in the experiments described, the prompting and persuasion, are called suggestion, a word to which I shall return, and which I shall define more exactly later on.

I shall use the phrase, "to suggest" for the giving of these hints or promptings.

If the suggestion takes effect it is said, from the point of view of hypnotism, that the subject is under the influence of suggestion.

There arc several methods of inducing hypnosis, as can be gathered from the above examples.

In order to make a systematic survey, we divide these methods into two groups—the mental and the physical.

The mental methods induce hypnosis by giving a particular direction to the subject's imagination ; this is clone either by concentrating the attention upon an arbitrary point (Braid), or by raising an image of the hypnotic state in the subject's mind. The latter is most easily done by speech, as we have seen in the above four examples. Liebeault originated the process, which deserves particular attention, as by the use of it unpleasant accompanying phenomena are more surely avoided. As a matter of course, the methods are slightly modified to suit special cases, because individual character plays an incomparably larger part in mental states than in ordinary physiological investigations. Naturally, it is quite possible to call up the image of the hypnotic states by other means than speech, and thus to induce them, by the influence of imitation, for example. The hypnotic state is occasionally induced by the mere sight of others in that condition, as well as by speech. The recollection of earlier hypnoses has the same effect ; upon this fact depends the induction of hypnosis by means of letters, or of the telephone (Liegeois).

It is certain that these mental influences play a large part in hypnosigenesis,(*) that is, in the origination and production of hypnosis. It is equally sure that they suffice in many cases to induce hypnosis, particularly when the person concerned has already been hypnotized. Bernheim and Forel even consider the mental factor as indispensable to hypnosis ; they hold the opinion that all the other methods mentioned below only succeed when they are of a kind to call up the picture of hypnosis. As, under certain circumstances which we shall examine later, the hypnosis may be a momentary one (that is, may pass away quickly), and as further in certain circumstances it need only consist of one solitary recognizable symptom, the representation necessary for the purpose need not be a very complicated picture (v. Bentivegni). Under some circumstances the mere idea that an arm has lost the power of motion is enough to cause hypnosis, of which precisely this loss of motion is the only, or the most important, symptom.

(*) Although the terminology up to the present time is very deficient, I will not make use of new expressions. Only instead of "hypnogen" and " hypnogenesis" (= induction of sleep), I shall use "hypnosigen" and "hypnosigenesis " (= induction of hypnotic sleep). " Hypnogen " is derived from —sleep— and is often used for " sleep-producing." " Hypnosigen " is derived from hypnosis ; and its use will prevent confusion.

Here belongs also autohypnosis, or self-hypnosis. In this the idea of the hypnosis is not aroused by another person, but the subject generates the image himself. This can only happen by an act of will. Just as the will is otherwise able to produce particular thoughts,so it can allow the idea of hypnosis to become so powerful that finally hypnosis is induced ; this is, however, rare. Autohypnosis generally takes place in consequence of some incident by means of which the idea of the hypnosis is produced; this often happens when the subject has been frequently hypnotized. It is possible that some states of sleep which arc generally considered pathological, belong to autohypnosis.

Faria formerly made use of a mental method to obtain hypnosis. After he had strained the attention of the subject as much as possible, he called out suddenly, " Sleep !" Liebeault substantially developed and completed this process, Bernheim made it more universally known.

I will now speak of the physical methods, which for a long time were the only ones used. They consist of certain stimuli of sight, hearing, and touch. Taste and smell (Binet, Fere) have been rarely tried, and have generally given negative results. The best known is the so-called method of Braid. The hypnosis is caused by a fixed gaze at some object or other. It is of little consequence whether the object is bright or not. Later, Braid gave up placing the object so close as to cause a convergence of the eyes. It is considered advantageous to hold the object so much above the eyes that the eyelids are strained as much as possible in keeping the eyes open. Instead of a lifeless object, such as was used in the first experiment mentioned above, the experimenter can make use of his finger for the purpose, or, as the professional magnetizers prefer todo, of his eye (Du Potet). Lately, Luys has used a rapidly revolving mirror, in order to produce speedy and extreme fatigue of the eye. Just the same effect can be produced by hearing as by sight ; for this the ticking of a watch is preferred (Weinhold, Heidenhain). Among uncivilized races particular instruments are used to produce analogous states ; for example, the sound of a magic drum among the Lapps ; among other races the monotony of uniform rhythm in song (Bastian). Instead of these continuous, monotonous, weak stimulations of the senses, we see also sudden and violent ones made use of, for example, in the Salpetriere, the field of Charcot's work, the loud noise of a gong or a sudden ray of the Drummond light. However, it is more than doubtful whether these sudden strong-physical stimuli, without any mental element, can induce true hypnosis. Perhaps we have to do here with states not far removed from paralysis from fright; at least subjects thus hypnotized often wear an expression of fear (Richer). The effect can be also produced through the sense of touch, even by a gentle stroking of the skin, or by pressure upon it. Some have also sought to induce hypnosis by the stimulus of heat—eg,, warm plates of metal (Berger). It is known that warmth easily brings on natural sleep, while cold, if it is not too great, keeps it off.

I here mention in particular the so-called mesmeric, mesmerizing, or magnetic passes, upon which Richet sets great value. I have already shown and described above, in the second experiment, how they are made ; I mention them here, though the question of how they act is not yet satisfactorily settled. It is not certain whether the stimulation of temperature, as Heidenhain and Berger suppose, or the slight motion of the air, or the mental influence, is the efficient agent in this case. I myself consider it most likely that the various agencies combine, but that the mental factor is the most important. It is not necessary to assume the existence of any peculiar force, such as the magnetic fluid of the mesmerist. An old hypothesis has been recently revived, namely, that we have to do with an electrical action (Rostan, J. Wagner). Tarchanoff has shown that by means of gentle stimulations of the skin weak electric currents can be produced in it, but that these same can also be produced by strong concentration of the will, in consequence of which there is always muscular contraction. Now, as the mesmerists consider a strong effort of will necessary on the part of the operator, it is possible that a peripheral development of electricity takes place in him, which has an effect upon the mesmerized subject. This idea is, however, merely a supposition of individual investigators ; we know nothing certain about it yet.

We should note that the method of so-called " mesmeric passes" was not used by Mesmer; it is true that he endeavoured to influence by touch, but these peculiar monotonous long-continued passes which I have described above, were unknown to him.

Pitres maintains that certain portions of the body are particularly sensitive to stimulation of the skin. The "zones liypnogenes" described by him sometimes exist on only one side of the body, and sometimes on both. Stimuli applied to them are said to produce hypnosis in certain persons, as is indeed maintained of other parts. Among these parts of the body the crown of the head, the root of the nose, the thumb, the elbow, &c, are particularly named. According to Chambard and Laborde a gentle scratching of the skin of the neck induces hypnosis. I myself have seen many persons who maintained that they became hypnotized only when I touched their foreheads. It is often stated that touches on the forehead induce a sleepy state in many persons (Purkinje, Spitta). An Englishman named Catlow magnetized by means of gentle stroking of the forehead (Baumler). I also know some persons who, in order to go to sleep more easily, cause other parts of the body to be gently stimulated—the head, or soles of the feet, for example. Eulenburg maintains that pressure on the cervical vertebrae induces hypnosis.

Finally, I mention the action of the electric battery, whose influence, according to Weinhold, has the same effect as mesmeric passes. Weinhold, however, writing in a critical spirit, does not consider that mental influences are in this case excluded. When Eulenburg obtained a lethargic condition, resembling-hypnosis, by galvanizing the head, this experiment did not prove a true hypnosis, since the person experimented upon had already had attacks of lethargy. It is certain that in many cases where hypnosis is supposed to have been caused by the application of electricity to the head, the hypnosis has only come on because the subject believed that electricity induced hypnosis. Hirt often uses electricity in this way, but is at the same time perfectly clear that it is not the electricity but the subject's belief in its effect, that produces the hypnosis.

To conclude, I further mention stimulations of the muscular sense, such as the cradle rocking used to send little children to sleep ; I leave on one side the question as to whether hypnosis can be attained by this means. Similar states are said to be produced among uncivilized peoples by violent whirling or dancing movements; the movements are, however, accompanied by music and other mental excitations. The best known are the Aissaouas, in Algiers (Figuier, Bert, Delphin). " They carry on their business chiefly in the Algerian town of Constantine. They are able by means of dancing and singing to throw themselves into a state of ecstasy difficult to describe, in which their bodies seem to be insensible even to severe wounds. They run pointed iron and sharp knives into their heads, eyes, necks, and breasts, without injuring themselves" (Hellwald). The same thing is related of the Buddhist convents in Tibet (Hellwald, Gabriel Huc), and Dr. Sperling has told me that he has himself seen dervishes in Constantinople, who, from the expression of their eyes and their whole appearance, as well as from the peculiar postures they maintained for a length of time, impressed him as being in a hypnotic state. The state may have been induced by monotonous singing and uniform whirling movements. As Dr. Sperling has a particularly wide experience in the field of hypnotism and is one of the most competent authorities on the subject, his opinion is of peculiar value.

I have hitherto spoken only of sense-stimuli among the physical methods. But it must also be mentioned that the absence of these stimuli is likewise specified as an expedient for hypnosigenesis. Jendrassik, of Buda-Pesth, expresses the opinion that fixed attention is only effective because it causes fatigue of the nerves of sight, and consequently produces insensibility to stimulation. Perhaps the case related by Strumpell is of this class ; he observed a person who fell asleep immediately on the cessation of sense-stimulation.

This classification of hypnogenetic expedients is merely theoretical (Forel, Levillain) ; and that fur two reasons. In the first place we cannot regard body and mind as two factors which are independent of one another. Sense-stimuli, which affect the body, nearly always exercise a certain effect on the mind ; the mind, on the other hand, can act upon nothing which has not previously entered it by means of the organs of sense. In the second place, in practice several hypnogenetic processes are habitually used at the same time. This will become perfectly clear if the hypnotized person is watched : let him be told that he must keep any particular idea well in mind, that he must concentrate his whole attention on the idea of sleep; he will then, in order to obey the command, look steadily at some point, or at once shut his eyes, in order as much as possible to prevent distraction of thought.

Thus Bernheim occasionally uses fixed attention at the same time as the mental methods. Braid, again, who made use of fixation almost entirely, yet considered a particular mental activity also necessary. This is particularly to be noticed, because some people nowadays believe that they are using the method of Braid when they tell the subject to look steadily at something. In reality Braid considered a steady attention as well as a steady gaze indispensable if hypnosis were to be attained ; the subject must think steadily of the thing he was looking at, and must not allow himself to be diverted from it. According to Braid, one can hypnotize even in the

But even theoretically we cannot always keep things apart. Closing of the eyes, with slight pressure upon them, often leads, as Lasegue showed, to hypnotic states. How these come about, whether through the cessation of the sense stimulation, or through the idea of sleep, which the closing of the eyes certainly easily calls up, cannot be decided. After these details, the much discussed and disputed question must be answered, whether a person can be hypnotized without his knowledge ; whether any one can be thrown into the hypnotic state merely by sense-stimuli, without these arousing an image of the hypnosis. I know of no well-authenticated case in which sense stimulation has produced hypnosis by a purely physiological action. Most people upon whom such experiments are made know that an attempt is being made to hypnotize them ; they have been already hypnotized, and the stimuli arouse conscious or unconscious mental images of the hypnosis ; or they have seen the same experiments with others, or have heard of them. Even when this is not the case, the objection of Bernheim and Forel remains to be considered, that the stimuli induce a feeling of fatigue, and through this induce the hypnosis.

Which of the above methods, or which combination of them is the best for practical use, is a question the answer to which is not so simple that every one who has made a dozen experiments is justified in trying to reply to it. When we find that Richet thinks he can throw nearly anybody into the hypnotic state by means of mesmeric passes, that Liebeault hypnotizes nearly all his patients by means of the Nancy process, that Braid hypnotized ten persons out of fourteen by means of fixed attention, we sec that different methods bring about nearly identical results. I am decidedly of opinion that in each individual case that method should be selected by means of which the most vivid picture of the hypnosis, and the Conviction that it will come on, can be produced in the subject. I lay stress on the fact that in individual cases persons appear refractory to one method while another succeeds. I have found persons insusceptible to the use of fixed attention, or to the method of Nancy, while I obtained results by mesmeric passes. Evidently this proves nothing against mental action, as many persons believe they can only be influenced by some particular process. On the other side I have seen that intense fixity of gaze sometimes induces hypnosis when other methods are useless, perhaps because the subjective expectation of the hypnosis is sooner aroused by the long, intense stare, than by verbal orders. Again, in some cases it is well to attain the aim quickly, by means of a sharp shock (Sperling, Forel, Van Eeden, Van Renterghem).

I should here mention that, according to Landouzy, Proust, Ballet, and Benedikt, the magnet also has a hypnotizing effect, although my own numerous experiments have been unsuccessful. That the bending back of the head can induce hypnosis, as Eulenburg says it does, must surely be founded on a mistake.

Chambard puts chloroform, ether, &c, among the hypnogenetic agents. In any case, many phenomena analogous to thoseof hypnosis have been observed in the sleep induced by theseagents (Spring, Rifat, Herrero, Roth). I consider it better to distinguish these agents from hypnosis (F. Myers).

The waking from hypnosis (dehypnotization) can also occur in two ways—through immediate action on the imagination, or through sense stimulation, exactly as waking out of the natural sleep occurs sometimes from mental causes, for example, from habit, or from the resolution to awake at a certain hour; and sometimes from stronger stimuli of the senses, for example, a loud noise. It is nearly always possible to put. an end to the hypnosis by mental means, that is, by the command to wake up, or to wake up at a particular signal. It is hardly ever necessary to use other means, such as fanning, excitation by the faradism, sprinkling with water, loud calls, &c. I cannot confirm the statement of some, that cold has an arousing effect. Just as the mesmerizing passes induce hypnosis, so the demesmerizing passes—as I used them in the second experiment, above described — cause it to disappear. Whether the cool current of air, which is nearly always thereby generated, causes the awakening, or whether it is, as I think more probable, the belief of the subject that he must wake, remains undecided. Pitres and others think that there arc parts of the body where stimulation produces awakening; they arc called "zones hypno-fernatrices." Among them the ovarian regions are particularly notable. Finally, I mention the forcible opening of the eyes as a means of ending the hypnosis. Other processes which have been given, and which were supposed to induce awakening by physical means, such as bringing a coal near the patient, have only a mental effect, as they arc understood as a command to awake. In rare cases these artificial means of awakening do not succeed quickly ; a feeling of fatigue then continues. We feel the same thing occasionally when we wake out of natural sleep. After deep and long hypnosis a temporary state like extreme sleepiness follows, in which certain hypnotic phenomena continue.

If the awakening is not brought about by artificial means, persons in a light hypnotic state, such as is described in the first two experiments, habitually wake of their own accord after a few minutes or even seconds ; this especially happens when the continuance of the state has not been expressly ordered. Some people wake at the exact moment when the experimenter leaves them, as they then no longer think themselves under his influence. Others awake oftheir own accord out of deep hypnosis if they hear an unexpected and loud noise, or have exciting dreams. Thus, I once saw a grown-up person wake herself by screaming, because in the hypnotic state she had believed herself to be a little child, and in that character had begun to cry. The awakening which comes about without any apparent cause is remarkable and unexplained (mouvement psychique.) The same thing is sometimes observed in natural sleep, especially at its beginning; O. Rosenbach traces it to increase of the reflexes. Generally, however, the deep hypnoses continue for some time when they are not artificially terminated. Sometimes many hours passbefore the subject wakes. The old mesmerists (Du Potet, Lafontaine) describe as a rare occurrence in hypnotic experiments a state of lethargy, in which artificial awakening was impossible. After some time there was a spontaneous awakening, and no evil consequences were to be Observed. Guermonprez described lately how a person had remained three days in hypnosis, nobody being able to wake him. It appears that these incidents ; occur more often when sense stimulations are used - for example, the fixed gaze or the mesmeric passes.And again, this state has only been observed among hysterical subjects, so far as I am aware. Therefore I believe that this lethargy must be distinguished from hypnosis, the chief symptoms of which are wanting. We cannot identify this state with hypnosis, merely because it is a result of the same processes ; the identity could only be proved by a likeness of symptoms, not by a likeness in the manner of their production. When one person receives a blow on the car and haemorrhage under the skin follows, while another receives a like blow, and has the drum of the ear burst: these are two different injuries, and the fact that they have the same cause does not make them identical.

Who is hypnotizable ? In order to settle this question without hypnotic experiments, Ochorowicz has invented a special instrument—the hypnoscope : it is an iron magnet in the form of a ring, which the person to be tested puts on his finger. Hypnotizable persons are supposed to experience certain sensations in the skin and twitchings of the muscles, while with the insusceptible nothing of the kind takes place. The researches of other investigators have not confirmed this (Obersteiner, Gessmann, Grasset, Bottey). Other signs which are supposed to indicate susceptibility to hypnotism I consider untrustworthy.

Neither neurasthenia nor pallor, neither hysteria nor general feebleness of health, produce a disposition to hypnosis. As far as hysteria is concerned, it is not in my experience peculiarly suited to hypnotism. Our ordinary hysteria with its variable characteristics of headache and the feeling of a lump in the throat (globus) combined with the general hysterical desire to be interesting and to exaggerate the sufferings endured, produces, according to my experience, very little disposition to hypnosis. The spirit of contradiction, very strongly developed in such patients, contributes not a little to this. The mistaken notion that hysterical or nervous patients are particularly susceptible to hypnotism results from the fact that most physicians have experimented with them only ; besides which it is very easy to discover in all persons something which may be explained as a hysterical symptom, if only we try to do so. If, however, we consider every one who submits himself to a hypnotic experiment to be " nervous," then, naturally, only nervous persons can be put into the hypnotic state ; but this view cannot be taken seriously. In reality, if we are to take a pathological condition of the organism as a necessary condition for hypnosis, we shall be obliged to conclude that nearly everybody is not quite right in the head. For the rest, the old mesmerists in part (Wirth and others) maintained that hysteria only produced a disposition to the magnetic sleep.

Further, if general weakness is to be put forward as a predisposing factor, I, for my part, must emphasize the fact that I have hypnotized many very muscular persons. It is known that Hansen, whose practical experience is of some value, always preferred muscular people for his experiments. The susceptibility of tuberculous patients is striking (Bernheim.)

With regard to mental aptitudes, Forel believes that every mentally healthy human being is hypnotizable. In Liebeault's opinion heredity plays a great part in the disposition to hypnosis. It is universally agreed that the mentally unsound, particularly idiots, even if not wholly insusceptible, are still very much more difficult to hypnotize than the healthy. However, A. Voisin informs us that he has succeeded in hypnotizing ten per cent, of the mentally unsound, by exercising the necessary patience. With regard to intelligence, intelligent persons are more easily hypnotizable than the dull and stupid. Among the lower classes the mentally superior are undoubtedly easier to hypnotize than others. Mental excitement easily prevents hypnosis. The numerous observations made by Wetterstrand, Ringier, and others, that certain individuals are occasionally refractory to hypnosis, may be connected with this fact. I could confirm this occasional disinclination to hypnosis by a whole series of cases. I consider it a complete mistake to say that the disposition to hypnosis is a sign of weakness of will. Without doubt the ability to maintain a passive state has a predisposing effect. This is why soldiers are in general easy to hypnotize. The ability to direct one's thoughts in any particular direction is also very favourable. As we habitually consider this power to be a sign of strength of will, the disposition to hypnosis would rather be a sign of strength than of weakness of will. This ability to give the thoughts a certain prescribed direction is partly natural capacity, partly a matter of habit, and often an affair of will. Those, on the contrary, who can by no possibility fix their attention, who suffer from continual absence of mind, can hardly be hypnotized at all. It is specially among the nervous that a strikingly large number of this last class are to be found, who cannot hold fast to a thought, and in whom a perpetual wandering of the mind predominates. The disposition to hypnosis is also not specially common among those persons who are otherwise very impressible. It is well known that there are some who can be easily influenced in life, who believe all that they are told, upon whom the most unimportant trifles make an impression, nevertheless, when an effort is made to hypnotize them, they offer a lively resistance, and the typical symptoms of hypnosis cannot be induced in them.

Nationality (Ewald), or local surroundings (Brugia), have no influence upon susceptibility to hypnotism. Forel in Zurich, Renterghem in Amsterdam, and Wetterstrand in Stockholm, have shown that Teutonic peoples are as easy to hypnotize as Latin. Wetterstrand only failed to hypnotize eighteen people out of 718 in Stockholm. Besides, Braid's experiences in England show nearly the same thing. Recently it has been pointed out in many quarters that Russians are more easily hypnotized than any other people (Poirault and Drzewiecki). In any case it may be considered settled that susceptibility to hypnotism is no peculiar privilege of the Latin races. With regard to age, children under three years cannot be hypnotized at all, and even up to about eight years of age they can only be hypnotized with difficulty. Although children are otherwise easily influenced, their thoughts are so easily distracted that they cannot fix their minds on a prescribed picture, such as that of hypnosis. Old age is by no means refractory to hypnosis. According to the experiences of the school of Nancy, with which mine agree, older persons more often remember, after hypnosis, all that has happened than do younger Ones. Sex has no particular influence; it is a mistake to suppose that women are better adapted than men.

Besides this, individual observers (Bremaud, Maack) mention some points which are supposed to be favourable or unable. Brdmaud, for example, mentions alcohol as favourable, Maack as unfavourable. But universal conclusions should not be drawn from a few observations, as so doing will not contribute to any clear understanding. For the same reason I question the general accuracy of some of Ringier's statements, though the rest of his remarks have a great practical value. According to him, hypnotism is less easily practised in winter than in summer, because cold is supposed to be unfavourable ; thus persons who were easily hypnotized in summer become refractory in winter.

The frequency with which an attempt should be repeated on the same person is of more importance. While, according to Hahnle, only one person in ten proves susceptible on a first attempt, the proportion increases enormously with the frequency of the sittings. This is not to be wondered at, from the mental excitement shown by many people in the beginning. And as it is most important to hypnosis that the attention should not be distracted, many people arc first of all obliged to learn to concentrate their thoughts. There are even experimenters who maintain that everybody is hypnotizable, if only the attempt is continued long enough. Without declaring this view to be false, I may remark that I have made forty or more attempts with some persons without obtaining hypnosis. Perhaps by even longer continued efforts a result would have been attained, as indeed has happened to me many times after forty vain attempts. It may be something the same thing as with the great lottery prize. According to probability everybody would win once, if they could only live and play long enough.

Besides these subjective conditions there are some other objective ones. Thus, for example, disturbing noises at the first experiment have power to prevent the hypnosis ; they draw off the attention, and thus interfere with the mental state necessary for hypnosis. Later, when the subject has learnt to concentrate his thoughts, noises are less disturbing. But in hypnotic experiments the most absolute avoidance by those present of any sign of mistrust is necessary. The least word, a gesture, may thwart the attempt to hypnotize. As the mood of a large company is often distrustful, as a whole generation also is sometimes sceptical, the great variations in susceptibility to hypnosis which have shown themselves at different times and places are explicable. It is not surprising that on one occasion ten persons, one after the other, arc hypnotized, while on another occasion ten other persons all prove refractory.

Experience and a knowledge of the mental conditions of mankind are indispensable for the hypnotizer. The first is absolutely necessary ; it is more important than a knowledge of anatomy and physiology. By experience one learns to discriminate and to enter into the particular character of the subject. Practice and a gift for observation enable the right stress to be laid at the right moment either on fixed attention or on the closing of the eyes. The experienced experimenter knows how to judge whether it is best in any particular case to attain his aim by speaking or whether, as sometimes happens, speech would be a hindrance, and the chief stress would be best laid on fixed attention, &c. A person who is easily hypnotized can be hypnotized by any one; but one who is hypnotized with difficulty can only be thrown into hypnosis by a good and experienced experimenter. It is by no means a contradiction of this that the personal impression made by the experimenter may be very important and have great influence. In consequence of this it happens that a certain person A. can be hypnotized by B., while he remains refractory to the efforts of C. On the other hand, it may happen that D. can be hyp. notized by C. but not by B. This shows that the Influence of one person over another is dependent on the individuality of both. We find the same in life, in the relation of teacher to pupil, and of pupil to teacher, in the reciprocal relations of friends, or lovers. The influence of one person on another always depends on the individuality of both.

That there exists an individual aptitude for hypnotization, and for making the suggestions which will be discussed later, is certain. It is true that we must not think of this ability as did the older mesmerists, who supposed that certain persons exercised a peculiar physical force upon others ; we must represent this natural ability to ourselves as we do many others, when we have to do with particular mental aptitudes. Calm, presence of mind, and patience are essential, and not every one can exercise these qualities. To busy oneself with hypnotizing a subject daily for hours at a time demands a perseverance which everybody does not possess. Very much more patience is necessary for this than for writing prescriptions, for example, several hundreds of which could be produced in the same length of time.

The question whether hypnosis can be induced against the wish of the subject is by no means unimportant. We must distinguish here whether the subject complies with the prescribed conditions or whether he does not. If he does ; if, for example, he sufficiently concentrates his attention ; if he gazes at some object with the necessary attention, then hypnosis may be produced at the first attempt, even against the wish of the person experimented on. However, it must be remembered that a person who does not intend to allow himself to be hypnotized will hardly place himself in the necessary mental state. He will not generally fulfil the conditions ; he will fix his eyes, but will allow his attention to wander. However, I think I may assert that certain persons accustomed to obedience can be hypnotized at the first attempt even against their will, and without the ordinary necessary straining of the attention, if only they are told that hypnosis will occur. Notwithstanding, these cases appear to be rare. It is not to be doubted that many people who have been frequently hypnotized can be re-hypnotized against their will and without their intentional compliance with the ordinary conditions. The experiments of Heidenhain show that people can be hypnotized against their wish. He hypnotized soldiers in the presence of their officers, who had strictly forbidden them to sleep. Such a command would have as much effect on a soldier as the personal wish not to sleep. Post-hypnotic suggestion, of which I shall speak later, is also a means of sending persons to sleep against their wish. There is a third possibility, namely, that no wish should exist in either direction. The conditions necessary for hypnosis may occur occasionally by chance, without the subject being conscious of them (Max Dessoir). For example, some one over his work is obliged to look fixedly at a certain point ; this suffices to induce hypnosis (sometimes after earlier fruitless experiments), without the person thinking of it. In this case the will is neither interested for it nor against it. The statement of Preyer, that persons being photographed sometimes remain sitting rigidly still after the taking of the photograph is finished, may be referred to a hitherto unsuspected hypnotic state, brought on by the fixed attention necessary to the process. It is known that some of the inmates of the Salpetriere in Paris fall suddenly into catalepsy in consequence of some loud unexpected noise. There is an interesting case of a girl who had often been hypnotized by loud noises, and who went to a drawer to appropriate some photographs out of it. The casual beating of a gong threw her into a cataleptic state, so that she stood motionless in the act of carrying out her theft, and was discovered. Hack Tuke remarks that it is a pity all thieves cannot be taken as easily.

As Bertrand related, with certain persons natural sleep can be transformed into magnetic sleep. Many attempts have been made to do this in later times. Baillif, Gschleiden, Berger, Bernheim, and Forel have even made these experiments on persons who had never been hypnotized at all, or who had previously been refractory to hypnotism. I myself have only been able to make one observation of this kind. The person concerned was a gentleman whom I had already frequently hypnotized, and whom I often threw into the hypnotic state while he was taking his afternoon sleep, without waking him. It is doubtful whether such experiments would succeed with persons who had never heard of hypnotism.

Still more to be doubted appear the assertions of Pitres, who thinks it possible to produce a hypnotic state in this way by means of stimulating the " zones hypnogenes!' Coste likewise asserts that sleep produced by chloroform and morphia can be transformed into a hypnotic sleep. Herrero has lately said that even any state of insensibility produced by chloroform, which has reached a certain stage, can be transformed into hypnosis, and that by this means persons apparently refractory to hypnosis may be hypnotized. My experiments in this direction up to the present time have had negative results.

In any case, however, previous consent is not absolutely necessary to the production of hypnosis, and, on the other hand, there are people who are refractory in spite of a decided wish to be hypnotized Preyer, Forel). In general, however, the intentional resistance of the subject hinders hypnosis, simply because a person who is willing to be hypnotized Complies more easily with the necessary conditions than another. Consequently it is not astonishing that patients who come to a doctor on purpose to be hypnotized, particularly when they come with full confidence, are more easy to hypnotize than others. These others often allow an attempt to be made with them, with the silent resolution to show that " they are not to be caught," or they submit themselves, as Nonne says, " only for fun," and yet many believe that susceptibility to hypnosis is a sign of defective will or intelligence !

As so many different circumstances influence the induction of hypnosis, it is not surprising that the proportion of hypnotizable persons should be differently stated. If Ewald in the Women's Hospital at Berlin can only hypnotize two persons, while Liebeault hypnotizes 92 per cent, of his patients, the reason of this enormous difference must lie in the different nature of the conditions. The insufficient mental preparation of Ewald's subjects is particularly to blame for his failure. Bottey gives 30 per cent, as susceptible, Morselli 70 per cent., Delboeuf over 80 per cent. His results appear to me of great value, having been evidently collected with critical care, as must be acknowledged by every unprejudiced person who reads Delboeufs works. He excludes simulators with the greatest care, and is, perhaps, in this respect more sceptical than the investigators at Nancy. Bernheim refuses the right to judge of hypnotism to all hospital doctors who cannot hypnotize at least 80 per cent, of their patients ; Forel fully agrees with him.

The oftener hypnotic experiments are made the sooner hypnosis generally is induced. The first attempt often takes five minutes or more, although on many occasions a few seconds suffice. When the experiment has succeeded a few times, a few moments are nearly always enough to attain the; result. This is because the remembrance of the earlier hypnosis essentially favours its return. Besides this, the strongest hindrance has been overcome by the earlier hypnosis—which is the belief of the subject that he is not hypnotizable, or that he can only be hypnotized by certain persons ; this belief often delays hypnosis. The certainty with which well-known hypnotizers hypnotize people, rests partly on the fact that these subjects believe they can be hypnotized by one celebrated hypnotizer and not by another. The disposition to hypnosis may also disappear when the experiments have been discontinued for a long time. Thus I once saw a gentleman who was susceptible in a high degree become refractory again, after no experiments had been made with him during six months. I have observed the same thing in several people, but the disposition to hypnosis can generally be reproduced after a short time, if a few attempts are made.

From the above examples it appears that the various hypnotic states differ much from one another, and that the depth of the hypnosis varies extraordinarily. This suggested that in order to obtain a general survey an attempt at classification must be made. The best known classification is that of Charcot, who supposes three stages—the cataleptic, lethargic, and somnambulic. I shall go into more detail as to these later, but will remark here that this classification has no universal value ; Charcot himself does not maintain that it has. In my own opinion the classification made by Gurney, containing two stages alert and deep—is only accurate for a few cases. In the same way the three stages supposed by Richer, Fontan, and Segard, are not sufficiently well marked for practical use. Nor does the classification of Delboeuf seem to me entirely admissible. According to him there are two stages of hypnosis—a stage in which pain can be felt, and a stage in which it cannot (analgesia). As, however, complete insensibility to pain is very rare, and as the transitions are vague, insensibility to pain does not appear to me to be a suitable distinguishing characteristic. The classifications made by Liebeault, Bernheim, and Forel, have also become well known. As they agree in the main, only differing in the number of stages—according to Liebeault, 6; according to Bernheim, 5 ; according to Forel, 3, I shall only cite that of Forel :—

Stage 1. Drowsiness : the subject can resist suggestions only with great effort.

Stage 2. Hypotaxy ("charme") : the eyes are fast closed and cannot be opened ; the subject is obliged to obey various suggestions.

Stage 3. Somnambulism : it is characterized by loss of memory on waking—that is, the subject remembers nothing after waking that has passed during the hypnosis.

The classifications of Forel, Liebeault, and Bernheim, rest chiefly on loss of memory, as a particular group (Forel's 3rd stage) of hypnotic states with loss or memory is placed in contrast with the others (Forel's 1st and 2nd stages), in which no loss of memory exists.

Those hypnotic states in which loss of memory exists, are called somnambulism by the authors above named. Wienholt also has already said that the magnetic states with ensuing loss of memory may be called somnambulism.

I think, however, it would be better not to make our estimate of the stages of hypnosis dependent on loss of memory, but on the phenomena which appear during the hypnosis itself. I shall show that memory after hypnosis is dependent on many other factors which have nothing to do with the depth of the hypnosis. A chance view of an external object will suffice to arouse a whole chain of mental images ; we shall see that memory is influenced by suggestion.

I should prefer on this account to judge of the depth of the hypnosis only from the phenomena of the hypnosis itself. Delboeuf, who often experimented with profound hypnoses, declares that the subjects after the awakening were nevertheless perfectly aware of all the hypnotic incidents.

The numerous sub-divisions given by Liebeault and Bernheim are not easy to utilize, because there exists no principle for such classification (Max Dessoir). For example, one stage is distinguished by the complete closing of the eyes, and a deeper stage by motor disturbances in the arms. As these last, however, can occur also when the eyes are open, they cannot be regarded as a sign of the deepening of the stage in which the eyes are closed ; for in the deepening all the phenomena of previous and lighter stages must also appear.

In order to avoid these difficulties, Max Dessoir has lately published a classification of the hypnotic states as simple as it is comprehensive and clear. According to this the states fall into two large groups, which are divided from each other by the extent of the functional disturbances. I will provisionally accept this classification. In the first group merely the voluntary movements show changes; in the second group abnormalities in the functions of the sense organs are added. In the first group, also, only those functions are abnormal which we attribute to the centrifugal nerves, while in the second group the functions of the centripetal nerves are likewise disturbed. The principle of this classification was already known to Klugealso. The minority of subjects belong to Group II. ; if we take 75 per cent, to be susceptible,then about 55 percent, belong to Group I., and 20 per cent, to Group II. According to Kron this hitter percentage is perhaps too high; in his opinion a relatively smaller number of persons than I give belong to Group II. He conjectures that through practice and other factors these figures might vary considerably. It will be understood that in these two groups many stages and types can be distinguished. For example, we see that many a hypnotic state belonging to Group I. is merely characterized by the closing of the eyes, which the subject cannot voluntarily open, as in the first experiment (p. 21). As has been mentioned, this state used to be considered as a particular stage of hypnosis, but according to the explanation given above it takes its place as merely a particular form of Group I. It was generally represented as a particular stage, because in manycases hypnosis is ushered in by a closing of the eyes,while other muscles are only affected later on. However, this is really a pure accident (Max Dessoir); we have accustomed ourselves more and more to induce hypnosis by affecting the eyes, and to provoke a closing of them as quickly as possible; but this is nothing but a habit, resulting from the identification of hypnosis with sleep. There are a large number of hypnotists who induce hypnosis when the 'eyes are wide open, as is the case in " fascination," which will be discussed later ( ofthird experiment). I myself have met many people in whom it was impossible to bring about change of movement of the eye, while the other muscles were easily affected. For this reason I think the assertion of Michael that hypnosis can only be proved when the eyes are completely closed is mistaken. He is perfectly right, however, when he says that we should not ascribe to hypnosis the states of fatigue and giddiness which ensue after long attention, unless other phenomena typical of hypnosis also appear.

It is clear that the two groups cannot be sharply divided from one another. On the contrary, gradual transitions arc everywhere to be found. Also the transition from a normal state to hypnosis is gradual, and certainly not so sudden as some think. We find many stages even before we arrive at the closing of the eyes, which, certainly does not indicate a deep hypnosis ; at first only heaviness of the eyelids, then the desire to close the eyes, then a difficulty in opening them, and finally a complete closing of them. All possible stages are displayed, and it would not be very difficult to describe a hundred different ones. Further, a deep hypnosis is not always attained at once ; the light states are often passed through before the deepest appears. It is naturally difficult, through all these gradual transitions, to decide the exact moment of the appearance of hypnosis. A deep sigh, which is often heard at the beginning of hypnosis, is by many wrongly considered as diagnostic of the important moment, particularly as this symptom is easily spread by imitation (Delboeuf). The movements of swallowing which appear, especially after long fixation, have equally little significance.